Brown locust (Locustana pardalina)
Brown locust (Locustana pardalina) | |
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Brown locust | |
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Taxonomy | |
Family: | Acrididae |
Subfamily: | Oedipodinae |
Genus: | Locustana |
Additional resources | |
Full taxonomy at OSF |
The brown locust (Locustana pardalina) is a significant and frequent agricultural pest in Southern Africa[1] [2]. Its main breeding and outbreak area is the semi-arid Karoo region which includes parts of South Africa and Namibia. A notable outbreak in 1985–86 cost South Africa an equivalent of 25 million USD. Since then, regular outbreaks continue to cost millions of dollars to manage.
Nomenclature
Locustana pardalina (Walker, 1870). For full nomenclature, see this taxon's page on Orthoptera Species File
Identification
Phase | Stage | Color | Body length |
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Gregarious | nymph (3rd to 4th instar) | orange and black | |
Gregarious | immature adult | yellowish-grey | |
Gregarious | mature adult | yellow | 41-46 mm (male) 42-50 mm (female) |
Solitarious | nymph | brown, grey, or green | |
Solitarious | adult | brown, grey, or green, with scattered dark markings | 26-31 mm (male) 28-40 mm (female) |
Identification resources
Name | Year published | Resource link | Descriptive keyword | Language | Geographic purview | Author | Year published |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FAO locust handbook identification key | View URL | Species identification, Locusts | English | Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, Oceania | FAO Desert Locust Information Service, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | ||
Orthoptera Species File | View URL | Species identification, Biology | English | Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, Oceania | Orthoptera Species File Online |
Distribution
The brown locust is a significant agricultural pest in Southern Africa.[1] [2] Its main breeding and outbreak area is the semi‐arid Karoo region which includes parts of South Africa and Namibia. [3] The main precipitation events occur in late summer and fall with a gradient ranging from ~100 mm in the western arid areas to 400 mm per year in the eastern Karoo, although rainfall is erratic and prolonged droughts are common.[4] The outbreak area covers approximately 250,000 km2 of the semi-arid Nama Karoo biome region of South Africa and southern Namibia out of which plagues have developed span out over the entire southern African sub continent up to the Zambezi River.[5] Periodic upsurges are known to spread further into Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe, and to a less documented extent, into Zambia, Mozambique, and Angola. [6] [3]
For more information and distribution records see [GBIF]
Biology
Phase | Developmental time |
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Eggs | |
Hopper | |
Adult | |
Laying-fledging | |
Adult maturation | |
Total |
Facts to integrate
- Exhibits locust phase polyphenism
- Likely the greatest size difference between solitarious and gregarious adults than any of species of locust [3]
- Food preferences: graminivorous (grass feeder), prefers short sparse grasses [3]
- Life cycle: the main hatching period in the Karoo begins with spring rains in September and continues into October. The second generation of eggs can be laid in January and a third in April [6]
- Eggs can exist in different physiological states during development depending on soil moisture, possible to start and stop quiescence a number of times [7] and can remain in this state for 15 months [3]
- Main breeding/outbreak areas are in the semi‐arid Karoo region [3]
- High outbreak frequency [8]. Non-swarming outbreaks are more frequent than other locust species in South Africa lasting 7-11 years [3] potentially causing a consistent burden on agriculture, and environmental externalities from chemical control [9]
Habitat and ecology
L. pardalina is found in arid regions with little or erratic rainfall. Ideal conditions can allow for three generations in a season. [3] This locust feeds mostly on dwarf grasses in areas where vegetation is sparse and short. [3] Eggs can change from diapause (response to unfavorable environmental conditions that suspend development for a period) to active growth, or into quiescence depending on moisture levels. [7] Each pod can contain diapause or nondiapause eggs or a mixture depending on the mother's phase state. Solitary or older females lay mostly diapause eggs, while gregarious laid a higher percentage of non-diapause which hatched into hoppers with gregarious characteristics. [7] [3] Quiescent eggs are known to be very drought tolerant and small numbers of egg pods have been known to survive for up to 2–3 years in the field [10] [11] Price, pers. obs., but the observation of eggs surviving for more than 12 months was decided irrelevant to the population dynamics of L. pardalina.[11] With favorable conditions eggs hatch in 10-20 days otherwise diapause for 1-3 months or longer. [3] Price (2021) reports hatching after adequate rainfall (20–25 mm of rain required for widespread hatching) in 10-14 days.
L. pardalina has five hopper instars (occasionally only four in males) lasting total of 21-38 days (solitarious) and at least 42 days (gregarious). [3] In the field, gregarious females will mature within 2–3 weeks after fledgling and will lay 3–4 egg pods with a mean of 45 eggs at weekly intervals. [[4] and refs there in] In the lab, females mature more quickly and can lay up to 10–15 egg pods each. [12] Under summer conditions adult locusts can live for 2–3 months and live longer during the cooler fall season.[12] The multivoltine lifecycle and high fecundity of L. pardalina make rapid population increase possible with two or three annual generations possible from September to May [[4] and refs there in]. Four generations have been recorded during favorable climate years. [5]
Directional migration occurs when adults mature from hoppers that displayed migratory activity (higher density marching bands). They can then travel ~25 km/h and up to 150 km/day [3]
Check out Henschel JR, Duncan FD, du Toit JCO, Milton SJ, van der Merwe H (2023) The brown locust refocussed - Knowns, unknowns and the relevance of Locustana pardalina (Walker) to Karoo ecosystems and rangeland management. Journal of Arid Environments 215: 105014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2023.105014
Land-use change
Shifting precipitation patterns have changed the range of the brown locust. [13] Rainfall fluctuations (especially increases above 150 mm) that increase vegetation cover could lower breeding success [14] as brown locusts prefer bare soil with patchy dwarf grasses for basking and egg-laying. [3] Historic overgrazing in the Karoo may have degraded land enough to create an ideal habitat for brown locusts. [15] [14] Alternately, brown locusts greatly impact grazing land [3], notably in the 1970s when severe damage was done to sheep grazing. [16]
Brown locust outbreaks and climate variability in Southern Africa DOI:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00691.x
Pest status
Brown Locust outbreaks are a consistent natural phenomenon brought about by plentiful summer rains. Their outbreak zone covers approximately 250,000 km2 of the Karoo, extending out of South Africa into southern Namibia. In the past, plagues developed that spanned the entire southern African sub-continent up to the Zambezi River. Periodic upsurges were known to spread further into Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe, and to a less documented extent, into Zambia, Mozambique, and Angola. One of the most challenging aspects of controlling the brown locust—as well as other species like the Desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria)—is that their breeding grounds are in remote and rugged regions of the world. The best time to spray dense populations of locusts is in their immature wingless stages as nymphs. However, getting locust teams into the Karoo, the semi-desert regain of South Africa, to manage the brown locust for example, and streamlining communication between farmers, land managers, and government officials remains difficult.
Recent outbreaks
The last major plague of L. pardalina happened in 1985–97 and cost an equivalent to $25 million USD. An outbreak in 1995-96 cost $3.5 million US. [1]
2021-2022 outbreak Above-average rainfall across many parts of Southern Africa in 2020 allowed populations of L. pardalina to skyrocket. Initial outbreaks started in 2020 in the eastern and south-eastern of the usually arid Karoo. This current outbreak primarily impacted South Africa and Namibia, with some 2021 reports in Botswana and Angola. 80 million rand (5.4 million USD) was spent on control operations with a heavy reliance on broad-spectrum pyrethroid insecticides.[17] Although there were calls for turning to alternative forms of integrated pest management like the biopesticide Green Muscle® as well as techniques like barrier spraying to reduce harmful impacts on non-target species.[18] According to The Namibian, in 10 of South Africa's 14 regions, the locusts destroyed over 719,000 hectares of grazing land and 1,207 hectares of crop fields, with the Kharas region being the worst affected. [19]
Outbreak media coverage
Name | Year published | Resource link | Descriptive keyword | Language | Geographic purview | Author | Year published |
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‘Switch off your lights at night’, panicking Northern Cape told, as locust swarms descend | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks | English | South Africa | News 24 | 2021 |
Brown locust outbreaks threaten Southern Africa | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Community development, Crop health, Food security, Livelihoods, Pesticide management, Pesticides, Governance, Emergency response, Management, Chemical control
|
English | South Africa | Farmer's Weekly | 2021 |
Brown locusts have survived a long drought in South Africa – here’s how | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Rainfall, Locusts, Locust outbreaks, Outbreaks, Infestations, Crop health, Food security, Livelihoods, Ecology, Biology, Education, Chemical control, Biological control, Rangeland management, Climate change, Modeling, Monitoring, Physiology
|
English | South Africa | The Conversation | 2021 |
Eastern Cape struck by worst locust infestation in 25 years, swathes of valuable grazing lost | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locusts, Locust outbreaks, Outbreaks, Infestations, Governance, Spraying, Pesticides, Environmental assessment, Emergency response, Grazing, Livestock, Rangeland management, Biological control, Chemical control, Management, Integrated pest management, Aerial control operations, Monitoring
|
English | South Africa | Daily Maverick | 2022 |
Farmers fear locust invasion as swarms lay eggs in the Karoo | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Spraying, Chemical control, Weather, Rainfall, Agriculture, Crop health, Pesticides, Grazing, Livestock | English | South Africa | IOL | 2021 |
Farmers worry as Namibia battles its worst brown locust outbreak | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locusts, Locust outbreaks, Outbreaks, Infestations, Crop health, Agriculture, Rainfall, Livelihoods, Livestock, Grazing, Food security, Governance, Community development, Monitoring, Management
|
English | South Africa, Namibia | Namibia Economist | 2022 |
High tech early warning system could curb next South African locust swarms | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Early warning, Forecasting, Monitoring, Chemical control, Biopesticide, Pesticide management, Pesticides, Technology, Spraying, Agriculture, Crop health, Migration, Earth observation, Rainfall, Weather, Meteorology, Public health
|
English | South Africa | Mongabay | 2022 |
How the Eastern Cape govt is helping farmers under siege from locust swarms | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Agriculture, Crop health, Aerial control operations, Chemical control, Pesticides, Pesticide management, Governance, Rainfall, Spraying, Public health, Grazing, Livestock, Collective movement
|
English | South Africa | News 24 | 2022 |
ICYMI: Brown locust outbreak in Northern Cape | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Infestations, Outbreaks, Governance, Agriculture, Environmental assessment, Weather, Rainfall, Management, Chemical control, Land use management | English | South Africa | Food for Mzansi | 2021 |
Locusts devour 3 000 hectares of grazing on EC farm | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Grazing, Livestock, Rainfall, Monitoring, Forecasting, Agriculture, Migration, Pesticide management, Pesticides, Governance, Spraying, Community development
|
English | South Africa | Food for Mzansi | 2021 |
Northern Cape farmers affected by the locust outbreak | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locusts, Locust outbreaks, Outbreaks, Infestations, Crop health, Agriculture, Governance, Biology, Spraying, Pesticides, PPE and cleaning, Economics, Chemical control | English | South Africa | Sowetan Live | 2021 |
Northern Cape farmers battle ‘horrific’ brown locust outbreak | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Outbreaks, Infestations, Locusts, Grazing, Livestock, Agriculture, Rainfall, Pesticides, Chemical control, Governance, Climate change, Land use management | English | South Africa | 2021 | |
Northern Cape farmers on high alert as swarms of locusts threaten food security | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Food security, Livelihoods, Agriculture, Crop health, Monitoring | English | South Africa | 2021 | |
Northern Cape ready and waiting for what could be 'record number' of locusts | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Rainfall, Agriculture, Crop health, Forecasting, Pesticides, Management, Food security | English | South Africa | Times Live | 2021 |
Outdated equipment hinders farmers’ fight against locusts | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Spraying, Pesticides, Aerial control operations, Chemical control, Rainfall, Crop health, Weather | English | South Africa | Farmer's Weekly | 2021 |
PICS: Locust swarms descend on Free State farmers | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Integrated pest management, Chemical control, Pesticides, Agriculture, Management, Weather, Climate change, Rainfall, Crop health, Economics, Food security
|
English | South Africa | The Citizen | 2021 |
Plague of locusts enters NC – is SA prepared for an ‘epidemic’? | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Agriculture, Spraying, Pesticides, Management, Crop health, Aerial control operations, Food security | English | South Africa | The South African | 2022 |
R5-million locust fight pays off for Western Cape - Food For Mzansi | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Agriculture, Management, Monitoring, Governance, Emergency response, Crop health, Land use management, Aerial control operations, Chemical control
|
English | South Africa | Food for Mzansi | 2022 |
Rains Drive Biggest S. African Locust Infestation in Decades | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Rainfall, Crop health, Pesticides, Press release | English | South Africa | Bloomberg News | 2022 |
SA farmers battle to control locust swarms of biblical proportions | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Rainfall, Grazing, Livestock, Livelihoods, Crop health, Food security, Spraying, Pesticides, Governance, Agriculture, Aerial control operations, Emergency response, Chemical control, Economics, Biological control
|
English | South Africa | Daily Maverick | 2022 |
SA on high alert for further brown locust outbreaks | 2021 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Rainfall, Governance, Monitoring, Crop health, Grazing, Agriculture, Livestock, Economics | English | South Africa | Farmer's Weekly | 2021 |
Swarms of brown locusts plague three provinces despite R80m spent on fighting the outbreak | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locusts, Locust outbreaks, Outbreaks, Infestations, Agriculture, Rainfall, Weather, Grazing, Livestock, Crop health, Economics, Livelihoods, Food security, Chemical control, Pesticides, Spraying
|
English | South Africa | Daily Maverick | 2022 |
Swarms of brown locusts seen in parts of the Northern Cape | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Rainfall, Weather, Agriculture, Management | English | South Africa | Sowetan Live | 2022 |
Urgent action needed to fight locusts across large parts of SA | 2022 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Agriculture, Crop health, Management, Aerial control operations, Chemical control, Pesticides, Spraying | English | South Africa | Farmer's Weekly | 2022 |
Associated organizations

Insight into management flow from Government of South Africa press release 3/17/22 via All Africa "Our immediate step is to mitigate the locust infestation in the Western Cape in collaboration with its sector partners such as organised agriculture, DALRRD, district municipalities, District Locust Officers, and Provincial Disaster Management Centre (PDMC). The PDMC has activated the Locust Joint Operation Committee (JOC), and a 24-hour action plan has been put in place until the locust infestation levels are under control."
Organization name | Acronym | Website | Type | Focus | Focus keywords | Geographic purview |
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Agri Northern Cape | View URL | Government | Management, Governance | Coordination | South Africa | |
Agri SA | View URL | Government | Management | Control, Forecasting, Monitoring | South Africa | |
CropLife Africa Middle East | View URL | Non-profit Organization | Development, Education | Sustainable development, Crop health | ||
Croplife South Africa | View URL | Non-profit Organization | Development | South Africa | ||
FAO Subregional Office for Resilience in West Africa and the Sahel | REWOA | View URL | Intergovernmental Organization | Development, Governance | Agricultural development, Regional cooperation | |
FAO Subregional Office for Southern Africa | SFS | View URL | Intergovernmental Organization | Development, Management, Governance | Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe | |
Grootfontein Agricultural Development Institute | View URL | University | Natural sciences | South Africa | ||
Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform | MAWLR | View URL | Government | Management | Monitoring | Namibia |
National Agricultural Marketing Council | NAMC | View URL | Government | Development, Research | Agribusiness, Agricultural trusts, Statutory measures, Markets, Economics, Agricultural development | South Africa |
Southern African Development Community | SADC | View URL | Intergovernmental Organization | Development, Funding, Governance | Agricultural development, Coordination | |
The Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development | DALRRD | View URL | Government | Management, Governance | Coordination, Control, Monitoring | South Africa |
The Orthopterists' Society | OS | View URL | Non-profit Organization | Information Hub, Research, Education | Coordination, Funding, Natural sciences | |
The South African National Biodiversity Institute | SANBI | View URL | Government | Research, Education, Governance | Biodiversity | South Africa |
Western Cape Department of Agriculture | View URL | Government | Funding | South Africa |
Resources
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Price RE and Brown HD (2000) “A century of locust control in South Africa,” in Workshop on Research Priorities for Migrant Pests of Agriculture in Southern Africa (Chatham) 37–49.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Todd MC, Washington R, Cheke RA, Kniveton D (2002) Brown locust outbreaks and climate variability in southern Africa. Journal of Applied Ecology 39: 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00691.x
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 COPR (1982) The Locust and Grasshopper Agricultural Manual. London: Overseas Pest Research. 473-477.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Price R (2021) Alternative Strategies for Controlling the Brown Locust, Locustana pardalina (Walker). Agronomy 11: 2212. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11112212
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Lea A (1958) Recent outbreaks of the brown locust, Locustana pardalina (Walk), with special reference to the influence of rainfall. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa 21: 162–213. https://doi.org/10.10520/AJA00128789_4047
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Steedman A (1990) Other African locusts. In: Locust Handbook. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, 204.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Duncan FD, Hanrahan SA (2018) Respiratory patterns in field-collected brown locust, Locustana pardalina, in the gregarious phase. Journal of Insect Physiology 106: 209–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2018.01.004
- ↑ Lomer CJ, Bateman RP, Dent D, De Goote H, Douro-Kpindou OK, Kooyman C, Langewald J (1999) Development strategies for the incorporation of biological pesticides into the integrated man-agement of locusts and grasshoppers. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 1: 71–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-9563.1999.tb00001.x
- ↑ Henschel JR (2015) Locust times – monitoring populations and outbreak controls in relation to Karoo natural capital. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 70: 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/0035919X.2015.1046974
- ↑ Potgieter JT (1929) A Contribution to the Biology of the Brown Swarm Locust and Its Natural Enemies. Science Bulletin, Department of Agriculture and Forestry, Union of South Africa Government Printer: Pretoria, South Africa 82: 1–48.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Botha DH (1967) The viability of brown locust eggs, Locustana pardalina (Walker). South African Journal of Agricultural Science 10: 445–460.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Faure JC (1923) The Life-history of the Brown Locust. Journal of the Department Agriculture Union South Africa 4: 205–224
- ↑ Kieser M, Thackrah A, and Rosenberg J (2010) Changes in the Outbreak Region of the Brown Locust in Southern Africa. Available online at: http://gadi.agric.za/articles/Kieser_M/kieser_vol4_2002_locust.php (accessed March 19, 2021).
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Le Gall M, Overson R, Cease A (2019) A global review on locusts (Orthoptera: Acrididae) and their interactions with livestock grazing practices. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7: 263. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00263
- ↑ Keay-Bright J and Boardman J (2006) Changes in the distribution of degraded land over time in the central Karoo, South Africa. Catena 1, 1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2005.12.003
- ↑ Botha DH, Ross WF, van Ark H, and Pick FE (1974) Residues in sheep exposed to BHC treated Karoo-veld in the outbreak region of the brown locust Locustana pardalina (Walker). Phytophylactica 6, 235–248.
- ↑ Sgqolana, Tembile. “Swarms of brown locusts plague three provinces despite R80m spent on fighting the outbreak.” Daily Maverick, 04/08/2022 https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2022-04-08-swarms-of-brown-locusts-plague-three-provinces-despite-r80m-spent-on-fighting-the-outbreak/
- ↑ Price R (2021) Alternative Strategies for Controlling the Brown Locust, Locustana pardalina (Walker). Agronomy 11: 2212. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11112212
- ↑ Albertz, Ellen. “Locust swarms wreak havoc at Keetmanshoop.” The Namibian, 04/06/2022 https://www.namibian.com.na/111471/read/Locust-swarms-wreak-havoc-at-Keetmanshoop