Clear-winged grasshopper (Camnula pellucida)
| Camnula pellucida | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Other common names | |
| Warrior grasshopper, roadside hopper | |
| Taxonomic classification | |
| Suborder: | Caelifera |
| Family: | Acrididae |
| Subfamily: | Oedipodinae |
| Tribe: | Hippiscini |
| Genus: | Camnula |
| Scientific name | |
| Camnula pellucida (Scudder, 1862) | |
| Geography | |
| Native countries: | |
| Pest status | |
| Known pest | |
The clear-winged grasshopper (Camnula pellucida) is abundantly distributed across the northern United States and southern Canada, particularly in grasslands and agricultural areas. It is most notably identified by its clear hind wings. This species primarily feeds on grasses and cereal crops, making it one of the three most destructive agricultural pests in this region. Its populations are especially influenced by temperature, as well as other environmental factors like moisture, and food availability. During outbreaks, large swarms can cause extensive damage to crops and rangelands, leading to economic concerns for farmers and land managers.
Taxonomy
For full nomenclature and taxonomic details of this taxon, see Orthoptera Species File No subspecies recorded for this taxon.
Identification
The clear-winged grasshopper is a species of band-winged grasshoppers (subfamily Oedipodinae, family Acrididae), which are a distinctive feature of the semi-arid grasslands of North America. Anatomically, they are easily recognized by their large, lobed hindwings, often marked with spots or bands—features that set them apart from other grasshopper subfamilies. These hindwings also play a role in their behavior; many species produce a loud snapping crepitation during flight, which can be heard from across a pasture or field, making them identifiable even to those unfamiliar with insect taxonomy.[1]
The band-winged grasshoppers form a distinct yet highly diverse group. While most species are harmless and should not be targets of control, the group also includes some of the most destructive pest species, like the clear-winged grasshopper. It ranges from delicate, inconspicuous grasshoppers to the largest and most visually striking ones in North America.[1]
The clear-winged grasshopper is mottled gray-brown or yellowish with clear hind wings. The top of the body has a narrow ridge that may be cut by a shallow groove. Its front wings are usually spotted, and the back legs are yellowish and have two dark bands on the upper segments.
Although similar in appearance to other genera within the tribe Hippiscini, this species can be distinguished by its lack of brightly colored hind wings, which are present in all other members of the tribe, and by its generally smaller size. It may be mistaken for Encoptolophus species, but those typically have blue or dark-colored hind tibiae and lack the panther-like pattern on the tegmina. Some spur-throated grasshoppers, especially Melanoplus species, might look alike at a glance, but can be identified by their different coloration and the presence of a noticeable spur between the front legs.[2]
Identification details
The clear-winged grasshopper has a small to medium sized body. Their color is generally mottled light brown, gray, or yellowish with a dark spot behind the eye on the head, and a dark vertical spot on the front half of the lateral lobe of the pronotum.[3] The pronotum has a flat, smooth disc that is wider at the rear and truncated at the front. The median carina is low, of consistent height, and faintly indented by a sulcus ahead of the middle. The lateral lobes are deeper than they are long. The tegmina are narrow and extend beyond the apex of the abdomen.[4][5] The tegmina are smoky brown, with light and dark patches on the sides, and darker on the dorsal surface, with a yellowish stripe along the humeral angle.[4][5] The stripe extends from the bases to the tips that form a narrow “V” when viewed from above.[6] The hind wings are transparent with dark veins. The hind femur is yellowish-brown, darker at the apex, and faintly marked with dark bars. The tibia is yellowish-brown, and the abdomen is yellowish beneath, with darker sides.[4][5][3] Clear-winged grasshoppers appear lighter in color as they age, and adults of these species turn yellow when they are sexually active.[5]
First-instar nymphs are boldly marked with black bars. Later instars exhibit minimal variation in body color, typically displaying shades of brown, tan, and black. They often have a yellow underbelly. The pronotum features an unnotched ridge called a carina, and a dark bar extends from below the antennae bases through the eyes.[6] See page 26 of Shell et al. 2005 for an image.
The clear-winged grasshopper are the only band-winged grasshopper with translucent hind wings and can be identified by this characteristic. However, this species is similar in appearance to the spur-throated grasshoppers which also have clear wings, but can be differentiated as spur-throated grasshoppers have a spur ventrally between head and thorax. The blue-legged grasshopper (Metator pardalinus) and other similar-sized band-winged species resemble C. pellucida but have colored hind wings.[6]
Featured resources
All identification resources
| Title | Author(s) | Year | Geographic purview | URL |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| UofA School & Home Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Newsletter Newsletter Grasshoppers | University of Arizona,Dawn H. Gouge, Tom J. Getts, Tim W. Stock, John F. Connett and Micah Gay | 2023 | View URL | |
| Common Grasshoppers of Montana Cropland and Rangeland | Montana State University | View URL | ||
| Insect answers | Daniel Suomi, Gary Thomasson and Dave Keim | 1990 | View URL | |
| Crickets and grasshoppers in Utah | Utah State University | 1931 | View URL | |
| Grasshoppers their habits and damage | United States Department of Agriculture | 1964 | View URL | |
| A Manual of the Grasshoppers of New Mexico | New Mexico Cooperative Extension Service,D.B. Richman, D.C. Lightfoot, C.A. Sutherland and DJ. Ferguson | 1993 | View URL | |
| The grasshoppers and other orthoptera of Arizona | University of Arizona,E. Ball, E. R. Tinkham, Robert Flock and C. T. Vorhies | 1942 | View URL | |
| Orthoptera of Northern Great Plains | North Dakota State University | 2007 | ||
| Hopper helper | Wendal Cushing | View URL | ||
| The grasshoppers of Nebraska | Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service,Mathew L. Brust, Wyatt Hoback and Robert J. Wright | 2009 | View URL | |
| Common Wyoming pest grasshoppers | University of Wyoming,Scott Schell and Alexandre Latchininsky,B.A. Shambaugh | View URL | ||
| Field guide to grasshoppers of economic importance in Nevada | University of Nevada | View URL | ||
| Field guide to some of the common grasshoppers of the Front Range of Colorado | University of Colorado | View URL | ||
| Pest grasshoppers in Oregon | Oregon Department of Agriculture,Thomas Valente and J. Buck Dunlap | 2024 | View URL | |
| Montana.gov Orthoptera Field Guides | View URL | |||
| Field crop and forage pests and their natural enemies in Western Canada | Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada | 2018 | View URL | |
| Field Guide to Common Western Grasshoppers | United States Department of Agriculture,Robert E. Pfadt | 2002 | ||
| Grasshoppers of the Western United States | United States Department of Agriculture | View URL | ||
| ARS grasshopper species fact sheets | Agricultural Research Services and United States Department of Agriculture | 1994 | ||
| Pest Grasshoppers of the West | University of Wyoming | 2005 | View URL | |
| The Grasshoppers of the Western U.S. Lucid mobile app | APHIS PPQ Science & Technology Insect Management and Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory (Phoenix Station), United States Department of Agriculture and Center for Plant Health Science and Technology of the USDA | 2016 | ||
| Grasshopper Identification and Control Methods to Protect Crops and the Environment | Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada | 2010 | View URL | |
| Rangeland Grasshopper Management | University of Wyoming,Jeffrey Lockwood and Scott Schell | 1993 |
Distribution
The clear-winged grasshopper ranges from Alaska to Nova Scotia down towards Mexico.[4] It is common across most of Canada, especially in the Prairie Provinces. It also ranges through the northern and central United States and parts of the western states.[3] Distribution also extends south along the Appalachians as far as Virginia.[7]
Biology and ecology
Camnula pellucida is an early hatching univoltine species, overwintering in the egg stage with eggs hatching from May to early July.[5][6] Males and females both have five instars. Development is rapid in ideal conditions of warmth, and good vegetation and can take from 26 to 40 days.[6] Seasonally, eggs are laid from mid-summer to early fall and require time for embryonic development before winter for survival.[4] Peak hatching typically occurs between May 15 and June 15, from egg pods predominantly laid in sod. Hatching occurs in mass numbers, typically peaking around noon, especially on warm days after rainfall. Females of this species tend to gather in groups and lay their eggs in the root crowns of sod-forming grasses.
Adults can aggregate in mating sites.[3] In field cage studies, females produced an average of 180 eggs. Even with a single egg pod containing 10 to 38 eggs, they have the potential for a rapid population increase.[6] Egg beds formed by females of these species may contain 3,000 to 10,000 eggs per square foot.[5] Some habitats may be widely distributed over the entire infested area and hard to notice at first glance, in other areas eggs may be continuously laid at the same spot, resulting in a few spots with heavy concentrations.[8]
Clear-winged grasshopper behavior is highly influenced by air temperatures. This relationship is important to understand as it informs outbreak control strategies to ensure treatments are delivered at opportune times and affect the most hopper individuals at once. A field that is swarming with grasshoppers at mid-day may not appear to contain a single grasshopper an hour after sundown.[8] They are inactive on windy days or in completely still air. Optimal conditions for growth and reproduction are warm, sunny, and dry; cold or moist weather reduces egg-laying and delays development.[9] Movement and migration stop at or below 70°F, and temperatures below 40°F are fatal. At 65–68°F, individuals bask and remain active as temperatures rise to 104°F. Peak mating occurs at 74–75°F, and poisoned bran bait is most effective when temperatures range from 71–77°F.[8]
Neither sex crepitates in flight, but resting males produce "ordinary" stridulation using one or both femora. Courting males attract nearby females by performing femur-tipping, where they move or raise their femora in a specific way. Femur-tipping and shaking are also used as aggressive signals between males, signaling dominance or territory.[4]
The clear-winged grasshopper exhibits strong migratory capabilities.[5] Adults can undertake dispersal flights at both low and high altitudes, as well as long-distance migrations. Females frequently travel between feeding grounds and egg-laying sites for oviposition. Nymphs disperse from the egg beds to the nearest green vegetation, while older nymphs move in cohesive marching bands.[6] Nymphs of this species have been estimated to disperse over 75ha from an egg site of 800 square meters before reaching maturity.[4]
Photos of this species
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Habitat and ecology
The species is found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, irrigated pastures, river valleys, mountain meadows.[10][11][6][3] It is particularly common in disturbed areas like roadsides and grassy fields, earning it the unofficial name "roadside grasshopper". When it appears in crop fields, it typically migrates from these undisturbed locations and often returns to them to lay its eggs.[4] It prefers undisturbed loam soils and lays eggs in barren, ungrazed areas, especially near hilltops and knolls.[6] This species often becomes the dominant grasshopper in its preferred habitat, with populations rising from inconspicuous levels to high densities in as little as three years.[6] Egg densities can reach or exceed 10,000 per square meter.[12]
C. pellucida is a serious pest of grains and grasses. It shows a preference for cereal crops and succulent cultivated grasses and is especially damaging to barely and wheat.[1][6][12] Other notable plants are western wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, smooth brome, Sandberg bluegrass, yarrow, carex, Junegrass, foxtail barley, needle grass, quackgrass, and bluegrass.[10] It rarely feeds on broad-leaved plants like pulses and canola.[12]
The clear-winged grasshopper is generally considered graminivorous, but in recent years it has also emerged as a significant threat to young canola plants. Although it doesn’t consume safflower leaves, it will chew through the stem just below the flower head, causing it to droop and potentially leading to greater yield loss than that caused by more aggressive Melanoplus species.[1]
Dead individuals of this species are often seen clinging to vegetation, sometimes showing visible conidiophores from fungal infections belonging to the Entomophaga grylli complex (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae).[1]
Land-use change
The clear-winged grasshopper became abundant in the Prairie provinces in Canada around 1900, alongside the construction of roads, drainage and cultivation in Manitoba. This change in land-use created favorable breeding sites and an increase of preferred food sources, causing an abundance of clear-winged grasshoppers. Due to shifts in agricultural practices, there has been a decrease in population in Manitoba in recent years.[12]
Pest status
The clear-winged grasshopper is a significant pest of forage grasses and small grains. It is one of the top dozen species monitored by USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) because of its impact on rangelands. Populations fluctuate dramatically in both abundance and distribution. They can remain largely unseen for several years before gradually increasing over three to four years, reaching peak numbers within two to three more years. When adults swarm, they can also pose a threat to broadleaf crops. They are aggressive feeders on rangelands, with as few as 20 grasshoppers per square yard capable of consuming all available forage. During outbreaks, populations can expand from a small area of rangeland to over 2,000 square miles, consisting mainly of clear-winged grasshoppers. Densities exceeding 125 per square yard have been frequently recorded. Outbreaks are likely triggered by favorable weather conditions, nutritious host plants, and lower levels of predation, parasitism, and disease. Optimal weather includes above-average spring and summer temperatures, as well as enough rainfall to keep plants like fescue, bluegrass, and wheat lush. Population crashes can occur due to fungal infections, drought leading to starvation, low temperatures hindering development, or freezing soil temperatures causing egg mortality. This species readily takes wheat-bran-poisoned bait.[6][5]
Management
Surveys by APHIS and its partners conducted in late summer aim to locate clear-winged grasshopper egg-laying sites. Another survey in the spring is scheduled to align with grasshopper hatching, helping to identify areas with high nymph concentrations for targeted treatment.[13]
The main strategy for managing clear-winged grasshopper infestations on rangelands involves the use of insecticides applied via all-terrain vehicle (ATV)-mounted or aerial sprayers. Recommended insecticides include diflubenzuron, malathion, chlorantraniliprole, various pyrethroids, and carbaryl. Carbaryl can also be used in bait form, as the clear-winged grasshopper readily consumes bait. Applications are made either through full-area coverage or using a method known as Reduced Agent and Area Treatments (RAATs). RAATs are an integrated pest management (IPM) technique where insecticide rates are lowered from standard levels, and treated swaths are alternated with untreated ones, reducing total coverage to 50% or less. This method combines direct chemical control, killing grasshoppers in treated areas and as they migrate from untreated zones, with conservation biological control, allowing natural enemies in untreated areas to help suppress the population. This IPM strategy can cut both insecticide use and treatment costs by more than half. Control efforts typically achieve around 80% effectiveness, which is adequate to suppress clear-winged grasshopper populations. The insect growth regulator diflubenzuron has shown particular success in RAAT applications due to its long-lasting residual toxicity, which persists for about three weeks.[13][14][15] Pesticide control application rates for this species are available based on 2019 information in [13].
In vegetable gardens, the clear-winged grasshopper can be managed using the biopesticide, Paranosema locustae, applied as bait on wheat bran. Recommended rates range from 1,121 to 2,242 g/ha, with higher doses for heavier infestations. A second treatment may be applied after 4–6 weeks. P. locustae acts slowly, killing grasshoppers within 2–3 weeks, though low humidity can reduce its effectiveness. In some cases, infected clear-winged grasshoppers that survive may transmit the pathogen to their offspring through their eggs.[13]
Outbreaks
No other grasshopper species in Canada shows such dramatic population swings. The clear-winged grasshopper was highly abundant in parts of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and B.C. in 1984 but had nearly vanished by 1993–94, appearing in only a handful of specimens out of more than 15,000 collected.[1] Yet during the same period, it caused outbreaks in northern areas. It is also the only species observed forming dense mating swarms visible from hundreds of meters away, with multiple males attempting to mate with a single female at once.[1]
A widespread outbreak across much of the Canadian Prairies in 1962 was brought under control by the fungus Entomophaga grylli complex.[1]
Outbreak media coverage
| Title | Author(s) | Year | Geographic purview | URL |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grasshopper and Mormon Cricket Outbreak Media | Oregon Department of Agriculture | 2022 |
Associated organizations
No results found in the database at this time—please reach out if you have any to share!
Resources
| Title | Author(s) | Year | Geographic purview | URL |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| UofA School & Home Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Newsletter Newsletter Grasshoppers | University of Arizona,Dawn H. Gouge, Tom J. Getts, Tim W. Stock, John F. Connett and Micah Gay | 2023 | View URL | |
| Common Grasshoppers of Montana Cropland and Rangeland | Montana State University | View URL | ||
| Grasshoppers of Colorado presentation | University of Colorado | N/A | View URL | |
| USDA grasshopper ecology and economics presentation | United States Department of Agriculture | N/A | View URL | |
| Prairie Pest Monitoring Network (PPMN) | ||||
| Insect answers | Daniel Suomi, Gary Thomasson and Dave Keim | 1990 | View URL | |
| Watch out for grasshoppers! | Amy J. Dreves, Nicole Anderson and Clare Sullivan | 2016 | View URL | |
| Grasshopper and Mormon Cricket Outbreaks in Oregon Frequently Asked Questions | Oregon Department of Agriculture | 2022 | ||
| Crickets and grasshoppers in Utah | Utah State University | 1931 | View URL | |
| Grasshoppers their habits and damage | United States Department of Agriculture | 1964 | View URL | |
| A Manual of the Grasshoppers of New Mexico | New Mexico Cooperative Extension Service,D.B. Richman, D.C. Lightfoot, C.A. Sutherland and DJ. Ferguson | 1993 | View URL | |
| The grasshoppers and other orthoptera of Arizona | University of Arizona,E. Ball, E. R. Tinkham, Robert Flock and C. T. Vorhies | 1942 | View URL | |
| Orthoptera of Northern Great Plains | North Dakota State University | 2007 | ||
| Hopper helper | Wendal Cushing | View URL | ||
| The grasshoppers of Nebraska | Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service,Mathew L. Brust, Wyatt Hoback and Robert J. Wright | 2009 | View URL | |
| Common Wyoming pest grasshoppers | University of Wyoming,Scott Schell and Alexandre Latchininsky,B.A. Shambaugh | View URL | ||
| Field guide to grasshoppers of economic importance in Nevada | University of Nevada | View URL | ||
| Field guide to some of the common grasshoppers of the Front Range of Colorado | University of Colorado | View URL | ||
| Pest grasshoppers in Oregon | Oregon Department of Agriculture,Thomas Valente and J. Buck Dunlap | 2024 | View URL | |
| Montana.gov Orthoptera Field Guides | View URL | |||
| Field crop and forage pests and their natural enemies in Western Canada | Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada | 2018 | View URL | |
| Field Guide to Common Western Grasshoppers | United States Department of Agriculture,Robert E. Pfadt | 2002 | ||
| Grasshoppers of the Western United States | United States Department of Agriculture | View URL | ||
| ARS grasshopper species fact sheets | Agricultural Research Services and United States Department of Agriculture | 1994 | ||
| Pest Grasshoppers of the West | University of Wyoming | 2005 | View URL | |
| The Grasshoppers of the Western U.S. Lucid mobile app | APHIS PPQ Science & Technology Insect Management and Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory (Phoenix Station), United States Department of Agriculture and Center for Plant Health Science and Technology of the USDA | 2016 | ||
| Grasshopper Identification and Control Methods to Protect Crops and the Environment | Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada | 2010 | View URL | |
| Rangeland Grasshopper Management | University of Wyoming,Jeffrey Lockwood and Scott Schell | 1993 |
Specimen contributors for this species
Bionomia links specimen records in GBIF to the people who collected and identified them. Each list shows the top 20 for this species.
Collected by
People who collected specimens of this species in the field.
- Mark Olivier — 7 specimens collected
- Graham Montgomery — 5 specimens collected
- Abbott William Nason — 4 specimens collected
- Nicolas Bédard — 4 specimens collected
- Herbert Holdsworth Ross — 3 specimens collected
- Walter Balduf — 3 specimens collected
- Elliott Gordon — 3 specimens collected
- John Powers — 2 specimens collected
- Ken Robert Schneider — 2 specimens collected
- lucas wheeler — 2 specimens collected
- Andrew Kleinhesselink — 2 specimens collected
- Nathan Gibson Earley — 2 specimens collected
- Ludovic Leclerc — 2 specimens collected
- Selim Peabody — 1 specimen collected
- Kenneth Auden — 1 specimen collected
- Susan Fawcett — 1 specimen collected
- Leslie Hurteau — 1 specimen collected
- Daniel Killam — 1 specimen collected
- Arvel Hernandez — 1 specimen collected
- Sam Herniman — 1 specimen collected
Identified by
People who determined the taxonomic identity of specimens of this species.
- Tyler Grant — 58 specimens identified
- Elliott Gordon — 5 specimens identified
- Graham Montgomery — 5 specimens identified
- Mark Olivier — 4 specimens identified
- John Powers — 2 specimens identified
- Arvel Hernandez — 1 specimen identified
- Brandon Corder — 1 specimen identified
- Ken Robert Schneider — 1 specimen identified
- Rupert Clayton — 1 specimen identified
- Austin Kelly — 1 specimen identified
- Kyle C. Elshoff — 1 specimen identified
- Nicolas Bédard — 1 specimen identified
- Ludovic Leclerc — 1 specimen identified
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Johnson DL (n.d.) Band-winged grasshoppers of the Canadian Prairies and Northern Great Plains. Environmental Health, Agriculture and Agri‑Food Canada Research Centre, Lethbridge, AB & University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada. https://hopperwiki.org/images/0/0d/Band-winged_grasshoppers_of_the_Canadian_Prairies_and_Northern_Great_Plains.pdf
- ↑ BugGuide (n.d.) Camnula pellucida – Clear‑winged grasshopper. Iowa State University. https://bugguide.net/node/view/135490
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Capinera JL, Scott RD, Walker TJ (2005) Field guide to grasshoppers, katydids, and crickets of the United States. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 280 pp.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Vickery VR, Kevan DKM (1985) The Insets and Arachnids of Canada: Part 14. The grasshoppers, crickets, and related insects of Canada and adjacent regions: Ulonata: Dermaptera, Cheleutoptera, Notoptera, Dictuoptera, Grylloptera, and Orthoptera. Publication 1777. Research Branch, Agriculture Canada, 918 pp. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2016/aac-aafc/agrhist/A42-42-1985-14-eng.pdf.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Pfadt RE (1994) Clearwinged Grasshopper Camnula pellucida (Scudder). Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 912. Species Fact Sheet. https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/30320505/grasshopper/Extras/PDFs/Species%20Fact%20Sheets/Clearwng.pdf
- ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 Schell SP, Latchininsky AV, Shambaugh BA (2005) Common Wyoming Pest Grasshoppers. 2nd Edition B-1161.Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming Cooperative Extension Service and Department of Renewable Resources. 76 p. https://hopperwiki.org/images/5/51/Common_Wyoming_Pest_Grasshoppers.pdf
- ↑ Brooks AR (1958) Acridoidea of Southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba (Orthoptera). The Canadian Entomologist (Supplement 9) 90:5-92.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Parker JR (1924) Observations of the Clear-Winged Grasshopper (Camnula pellucida Scudder). 46 pp. Available from: http://archive.org/details/observationsofcl00park (February 20, 2025).
- ↑ Pickford R. (1966) Development, Survival and Reproduction of Camnula pellucida (Scudder) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) in Relation to Climatic Conditions. The Canadian Entomologist. 98(2):158-169. doi:10.4039/Ent98158-2
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Capinera JL, Sechrist TS (1999) Grasshoppers (Acrididae) of Colorado: Identification, Biology, and Management. Colorado State University Experiment Station Bulletin No. 584S. https://www.uwyo.edu/entomology/grasshoppers/colorado/index.html.
- ↑ Hebard M (1929) The Orthoptera of Colorado. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 81, 303–425.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Government of Alberta (n.d.) Clear-winged grasshopper. https://www.alberta.ca/clear-winged-grasshopper.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Latchininsky A (2019) Clear-winged grasshopper Camnula pellucida (Scudder, 1862) (Acrididae)). In: Lecoq M, Zhang L (Eds) Encyclopedia of pest Orthoptera of the world. China Agricultural University Press, Beijing, China, pp. 51–55.
- ↑ Latchininsky AV, Schell SP (2007) Aerial RAATs brochure. ATV-RAATs brochure. UW CES Bulletin MP-95, Laramie, WY, USA.https://hopperwiki.org/index.php/UWYO_information_on_reduced_agent_and_area_treatments_(RAATs)
- ↑ Lockwood JA, Schell SP (1997) Decreasing economic and environmental costs through reduced area and agent insecticide treatments (RAATs) for the control of rangeland grasshoppers: empirical results and their implications for pest management. Journal of Orthoptera Research 6: 19–32.