Migratory grasshopper (Melanoplus sanguinipes)

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Migratory grasshopper (Melanoplus sanguinipes)
Migratory grasshopper
Distribution
Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia (U.S. state), Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, Yukon, Northwest Territories
Taxonomy
Family:Acrididae
Subfamily:Melanoplinae
Genus:Melanoplus
Additional resources
Full taxonomy at OSF

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The migratory grasshopper (Melanoplus sanguinipes), is a spur-throated grasshopper widespread across North America, particularly in central and western regions. It is thought to be a relative of the extinct Rocky Mountain locust (Melanoplus spretus) who swarmed the Great Plains in the 1800's. M. sanguinipes is a medium to large grasshoppers and is considered one of the most abundant and destructive pests to rangeland and agriculture in the North American West. It is a generalist feeder and thrives in degraded or weedy landscapes.[1][2] They are known for their ability to migrate in swarms, especially during outbreaks. The economic impact of their outbreaks along with other species leads to the treatment of millions of acres of range and cropland each year.

Nomenclature

Melanoplus sanguinipes (Fabricius, 1798). For full nomenclature, see this taxon's page on Orthoptera Species File

There are three subspecies of Melanoplus sanguinipes: Melanoplus sanguinipes atlanis (Riley, 1875), Melanoplus sanguinipes defectus (Scudder, 1897) and Melanoplus sanguinipes sanguinipes (Fabricius, 1798).

Identification

Melanoplus sanguinipes can be readily recognized by the structure of the cercus, which widens notably at its base and tapers bluntly towards the end, the distinctive notch on the subgenital plate, and bump on the mesosternum.[3] M. sanguinipes vary in color. Usually, these grasshoppers appear dark gray but can also be brown, yellowish brown, or olive-green. The tegmina have rows of small dark rectangular spots. [4][5] The hind tibia appears as a dull grayish blue, blue-green, or red.[4] [3] Other notable color patterns include orange stripes, which can be seen on the external surface of the hind femur; light spots on the compound eye; narrow pale yellow crescent on the gena extending onto the pronotal lobe to the principal sulcus. [6]

Life cycle parameters[3] [5]
Instar Color Body length Hind femur Antennal segment number
1 Tan or gray, few light green 4-6mm 2-2.9mm 12-13
2 Tan or gray, few light green 6-8mm 3-4.3mm 15-17
3 Tan or gray, few light green 8-11mm 5.5-6.1mm 18-20
4 Tan or gray, few light green 11-16mm 7.6-8.6mm 21-22
5 Tan or gray, few light green. Stripes on head and shoulders and prominent bar on legs 16-23mm 10-13mm 22-24
Adult males dark gray, dark spots on forewings 20-26mm 11-12.5mm 24-27
Adult females dark gray, dark spots on forewings 20-29mm 12.3-14mm 25-27

Identification resources

Name Year published Resource link Descriptive keyword Language Geographic purview Author Year published
Field crop and forage pests and their natural enemies in Western Canada 2018 View URL Agriculturist guide, Education, Infographic, Management, Species identification, Integrated pest management English Canada Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2018
Field Guide to Common Western Grasshoppers 2002 View URL Species identification English United States of America United States Department of Agriculture 2002
Grasshoppers of the Western United States View URL Management, Species identification English United States of America United States Department of Agriculture
Montana.gov grasshopper field guides View URL Species identification, Management, Biology English United States of America
Orthoptera Species File View URL Species identification, Biology English Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, Oceania Orthoptera Species File Online
Pest Grasshoppers of the West 2005 View URL Management, Species identification English United States of America 2005
Rangeland Grasshopper Management View URL Management, Species identification English United States of America University of Wyoming
The Grasshoppers of the Western U.S. Lucid mobile app 2016 View URL Management, Species identification English United States of America 2016
USDA ARS grasshopper species fact sheets View URL Management, Species identification English United States of America Agricultural Research Services, United States Department of Agriculture



Distribution

The migratory grasshopper is found throughout North America, dwelling in various habitats. It commonly resides in grasslands and meadows, feeding on a wide range of plants including different forbs and grasses. [3] Its diet varies depending on the availability of plant species, allowing it to adapt as either a mixed herbivore or primarily feeding on forbs. It has adapted well to agriculture and rangelands. It can be found in the US states of Arkansas, Idaho, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Vermont, and Wyoming. In Canada, it is found in, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, Yukon, Newfoundland Islands, and Northwest Territories. It is also present in Mexico.

Under normal conditions, the migratory grasshopper inhabits grassland habitats in low numbers. However, they are capable of rapid population growth.[1] They thrive in disturbed or cultivated areas like weedy rangelands, grain stubble, and roadsides. In optimal conditions, just three adults per square yard can reproduce exponentially, leading to outbreak densities of up to 30 adults per square yard in the following year. However, unfavorable weather and natural enemies usually limit population growth, maintaining densities between 0-9 nymphs and 0-3 adults per square yard.[3]

For more information and distribution records see [GBIF]

Biology

In the southern United States, M. sanguinipes can have two or three annual generations, while in Mexico the species only experiences two annual generations. The migratory grasshopper is an early hatching species, with the nymphs hatching around mid-May to mid-June; Adults can be seen around mid-June to October-November.[7] Nymphs have 5-6 instars over an average of 36-45 days at temperatures ranging from 25-39 degrees Celsius (77-102.2 degrees Fahrenheit).[4] These hoppers prefer to lay eggs on grass plants that allow for the eggs to be scattered by gravid female migratory grasshoppers. This egg scattering, along with favorable environmental conditions conducive to survival (soft soil, shade, etc.), fosters swarming behavior.[3] The migratory grasshopper embryo develops in 27 stages, reaching 80% of it's development on stage 24, proceeding to enter diapause and cease development.[6] During period of diapause, embryos remain physiologically active as nutrients continue to cycle through the yolk, embryonic fat body, and tissues. Diapause can be broken, allowing eggs to continue development, during winter months by warming soil temperatures reaching around 50 degrees Fahrenheit to 55.5 degrees Fahrenheit.[6] The 5th instar is marked by the wing buds appearing larger and shifting to the dorsal side of the hopper.[8] Lab grown M. sanguinipes populations reared at a constant temperature of 86 degrees Fahrenheit indicated an average of 25 days for the entire nymphal period for male individuals and 20 days for female individuals. All Instars took four to five days to complete, expect for the last instar which required seven days to fully develop.

Adult migratory hoppers mature at about 17 days, where oviposition begins about 20 days after maturity, depending on ecological conditions. Proper development is substantially dependent on environmental conditions as temperature fluctuations and environmental conditions can impact the development and size of the grasshoppers.[4] Dense breeding by this species can result in long-distance, high-flight migration of adults. M. sanguinipes migrate in search of an abundance of food sources. If swarms of M. sanguinipes are disturbed they will continue migrating towards resources or disperse swarms. [4]

At high population densities, these grasshoppers become more gregarious and exhibit swarming behavior. Bands of older nymphs (3-5th instars) may martch 5-10 miles traveling at 0.1 miles. Adults are highly migratory and fly about 10-12 miles per hour and cover around thirty miles per day.[7]

Habitat and Ecology

Migratory Grasshopper (Melanoplus_sanguinipes) Coldstream Cemetery, Coldstream, British Columbia by Judy Gallagher [1]

The migratory grasshopper is extensively found throughout North America, occupying a diverse range of habitats. It is commonly found in grasslands, meadows, tall grass prairies, weedy groups, stubble, and crops, where a variety of forbs and grasses are its host plants.[4] Its feeding behavior is adaptable, depending on the availability of plant species. [3] In some cases, it functions as a mixed herbivorous feeder, while in others, it adopts a forbivorous feeding strategy.[3] Soil temperature and moisture are crucial factors in the timing and duration of hatching. Hatching may begin in fields, open rangeland lacking vegetative cover, and in sandy soils. In areas with uniform soil, vegetation, and sandy soils, hatching duration can be shortened and may be completed in 3 days.[3] Migratory grasshoppers are incredibly resilient as these individuals can inhabit areas from sea level to mountain elevations up to 8800ft.[7]

Diet

The intake target, which is the self-selected diet for optimal growth and reproduction, in wild M. sanguinipies is more carbohydrate-biased in wild populations compared to their lab counterparts. Their ingested nutrients closely matched their available food sources. However, M. sanguinipes showed lower performance metrics on high-carbohydrate diets, while balanced or protein-rich diets yielded higher performance metrics.[8] While this species can consume and thrive off of any plant, a mixed diet is important for full development.[4] Generally, migratory grasshoppers consume young plants to ground level, or feed on the green areas of plant stems.[3] These hoppers consume plants along the edges of farmland or strips of plants along roads and fences, working their way toward the center of the field. This behavior has been reported to occur in Western Kansas and surrounding regions practicing similar agriculture cultivation practices have been ecologically damaging, as it causes severe damage to plant matter, which is foraged by livestock and surrounding wildlife.[3] Ecological factors such as cooler temperatures during fall and matured status of plants result in reduced damage by M. sanguinipies.[5]

M. sanguinipes mature from July to August, during these months, plants in southern Idaho have grown and depreciated in nutritional value. Interestingly, severe loss of key forage species is not seen with high densities of M. sanguinipes as they prefer to feed on lower-value annual grasses and forbs.[1] However, the presence of these hoppers, especially in high densities, can be a threat as swarms can migrate to nearby cropland.[1]

Preferred habitat information
Habitats Food sources Environmental conditions
Northern mixed grass prairie, southern mixed grass prairie, bunchgrass prairie, desert Prairie; mountain meadows, annual grasslands, disturbed lands (reversions, roadsides, crop borders.[6]

Preference for wooded or mixed country landscapes.[4] Often invading patchy and weed-prone landscapes such as overused rangeland by livestock, fields of abandoned cropland, or plowed sandy soils.[3]
Oviposition sites: Sandy loam soil, base of wheat, lucerne, along fence rows,[3] soil beneath shrubs, tall weeds, cow pats, grass sod[1]

Dandelion, tumble mustard, wild mustard, pepperweed, western ragweed, downy brome, kentucky bluegrass, barley, wheat, weeds.[4] Though, hedge mustard is particularly great for egg productivity.[3] On the ground, individuals feed on plant litter, cattle manure, bran flakes, and other material within their habitats.[3] Does not feed on kochia plants.[5] Wild populations carry more bias towards a carbohydrate heavy diet compared to lab grown groups.[8] Hatching duration is shortened by soft uniform soil, vegetation for shade and egg laying, and sandy soils.[3]

Cold weather can cause embryos to resume development as temperatures rise to 50-55.5 degrees Fahrenheit.[6]

Temperature: Swarming occurs on clear days around 80.5 degrees Fahrenheit, with gentle winds.[3]

Land-Use Change

Certain landscapes influenced by humans are vulnerable to migratory grasshopper invasions. For example, plowed sandy soils, which create wind-blown drifts beneficial for oviposition, over-grazed rangeland, and abandoned cropland, both of which contribute to the growth of weeds, create optimal conditions for M. sanguinipies groups to thrive. They are often the dominant species on weedy depleted rangeland and in patchy, unpredictable landscapes. Less migratory behavior is exhibited in ecosystems with lush and stable environments.[3] During periods when grass-feeding species are spreading on healthy rangelands, migratory grasshoppers are found in the group at relatively low densities of 0.1 to 3 young adults per square yard. This differs from their usual dominant presence in areas with weedy and depleted rangelands, where they can reach densities of 20 to 60 or even more young adults per square yard. These higher densities deplete the available food, prompting the grasshoppers to fly off and migrate to more abundant areas.

Pest Status

Grasshopper outbreaks have devastating economic impacts, damaging $393 million annually in rangeland forage loss[8]. M. sanguinipes populations have caused more damage than any other grasshopper in US rangelands, destroying fields of essential crops.[8] These insects invade rangeland and idle cropland and form swarms that migrate in search of new lands with more abundant resources. Number of migrants after flight ranges from 60-140 individuals per square yard.[3] In the quest for food, small grains are most vulnerable to their consumption patterns. Early hatches of these grasshoppers infesting stubble or roadside landscapes will travel towards, consume, and destroy newly germinated seedlings of spring wheat.[3] Outbreaks caused by these hoppers were most destructive in the 1980s, 1970s, 1940s, and the 1930s. In some instances, like in northeastern South Dakota in 1938, densities reached staggering levels of 1,500 to 8,000 nymphs per square yard in various habitats. Recently, they have been ranked third or fourth in pest status.[5]

Montana has adopted a species ranking system to gauge and reflect the relative degree of risk to species viability, measured from populations in rangelands to the state level.[7] The migratory grasshopper has been classified as a G5 species, indicating that these grasshoppers are widespread, abundant, and not vulnerable in most of the range. However, they have not yet been ranked at a state level, and these grasshoppers may be rare in certain parts of the range.[7] The ability of M. sanguinipes to migrate between rangeland to croplands, and their mixed feeding behavior make it difficult to implement mitigation strategies effectively.[8] Management of this species is particularly challenging because populations that emerge in rangelands can then migrate to croplands miles away.

Sampling Methods:

Sweep net sampling method: High and fast sweep sampling for effectively obtaining highly active or adult grasshoppers. Low and slow sweeping motions for nymphs or slow moving species. However, both tactics should be combined to gather the best results. This method can be more cost-effective than other sampling methods such as quadrat sampling. [6] Reportedly, the best time to get samples of this species in Arizona is from February to March. [6]

Outbreaks

During 1937-1939 in South Dakota, there was a severe outbreak of mixed-grass prairie, where a migratory hopper swarm traveled from Highmore, South Dakota to the southwestern corner of Saskatchewan, Canada covering a total distance of 575 miles at an average pace of 66 miles per day over 4 days.

In British Columbia in 1944, a severe but unusual outbreak occurred in the bunchgrass prairie, resulting in the destruction of 70-80% of grasses on the open range.[3]

Outbreak media coverage

Name Year published Resource link Descriptive keyword Language Geographic purview Author Year published
Grasshopper watch 2022 View URL Grasshoppers English United States of America Ag Proud 2022



Associated organizations

Organization name Acronym Website Type Focus Focus keywords Geographic purview
Center of Excellence in Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management CoEB View URL University Agricultural development, Community development, Research, Sustainable development, Technology, Training Rwanda
Global Locust Initiative GLI View URL University Research, Education, Information Hub Sustainable development, Ecology, Nutrition, Social science, Natural sciences, Agriculture, Agroecology, Biology, Behavior, Biological control, Climate change, Education, Sustainability science, Geometric framework, Grazing, Governance, Food security, Arts and humanities, Land use management, Landscape ecology, Locusts, Migration, Phase polyphenism, Phenotypic plasticity, Soil science United States of America, Senegal, Australia, China, Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Mali


Resources

Name Year published Resource link Descriptive keyword Language Geographic purview Author Year published
Sustainable use and conservation of microbial and invertebrate biological control agents and microbial biostimulants 2023 View URL Management, Biological control, Biopesticide English Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, Oceania Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International 2023
USDA APHIS-PPQ-Science & Technology Phoenix Lab Rangeland Unit project summary 2021 Summary English, Spanish, French United States of America 2021



References

  1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Fielding JD and Brusven MA (1992) Food and Habitat Preferences of Melanoplus sanguinipes and Aulocara elliotti (Orthoptera: Acrididae) on Disturbed Rangeland in Southern Idaho. Journal of Economic Entomology. 85(3): 783-788
  2. Mulkern GB, Toczek DR, Brusven MA (1964) Biology and Ecology of North Dakota grasshoppers. II. Food Habits and Preferences of Grasshoppers Associated with the sandhill prairie. North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station Research Report No 11. North Dakota Agricultural Experimental Station, Fargo, North Dakota.
  3. 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 Pfadt RE (2002) Field Guide to Common Western Grasshoppers, 3rd edition. Laramie, WY: Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 912, modified by S. Schell and S. Schell for electronic publication. Accessed 9 May 2024. http://www.uwyo.edu/entomology/grasshoppers/field-guide/index.html#fieldguidetoc
  4. 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 COPR (1982) The Locust and Grasshopper Agricultural Manual. London: Overseas Pest Research. 473-477.
  5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Johnson D (2010) Grasshopper identification & control methods to protect crops and the environment. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Pest Management Centre. 1-44. https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.692754/publication.html
  6. 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Murray D (2016) The Biology, Ecology, and Management of the Migratory Grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes (Fab.). Department of Entomology: Distance Master of Science Projects. Available from: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/entodistmasters/13.
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Montana Field Guide (n.d.) Migratory Grasshopper - Melanoplus sanguinipes. Retrieved May 17, 2024, from https://FieldGuide.mt.gov/speciesDetail.aspx?elcode=IIORT01210
  8. 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Zembrzuski D, Woller DA, Jech L, Black LR, Reuter KC, Overson R, Cease A (2021) Establishing the nutritional landscape and macronutrient preferences of a major United States rangeland pest, Melanoplus sanguinipes, in field and lab populations. Journal of Orthoptera Research 30: 163–172. https://doi.org/10.3897/jor.30.61605