South American locust (Schistocerca cancellata)
| South American locust (Schistocerca cancellata) | |
|---|---|
| South American locust | |
 | |
| Taxonomy | |
| Family: | Acrididae |
| Subfamily: | Cyrtacanthacridinae |
| Genus: | Schistocerca |
| Additional resources | |
| Full taxonomy at OSF | |
After 60 years of recession, a large upsurge of the South American locust (Schistocerca cancellata) began in 2015, spurring states of national emergency in Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil and a necessitating the re-development of management infrastructure on the continent.
Nomenclature
Schistocerca cancellata (Serville, 1838). For full nomenclature, see this taxon's page on Orthoptera Species File
Identification
For more extensive identification information on nymphs and adults see Trumper et al. (2022). [1]
| Phase | Stage | Color | Wings | Body length |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gregarious | nymph | yellow, red or reddish-orange, with a black pattern | ||
| Gregarious | immature adult | |||
| Gregarious | mature adult | pale orange to orange-red color in the head and cream to yellow in the pronotum. Strong black pattern on pronotum, wing pad, hind femur [2] | yellowish hindwings | In crowded populations, male and female body sizes are similar, since crowded females are smaller than isolated ones and crowded males are larger (mean value of body length for crowded males: 58.1 mm and isolated males: 52.7 mm). [2] |
| Solitarious | nymph | green, light brown to light green variations, small black dots on part or all of the body (e.g., hind femur) | ||
| Solitarious | immature adult | |||
| Solitarious | adult | generally light brown color with black stripes in the pronotum (lateral lobes have a pattern of light brown, brown and whitish stripes). Two brown dorsal bands, wide median longitudinal light-brown stripe from the fastigium along the tegmina. | The tegmina (forewing) exhibits a pattern of dark spots, hind wings are translucent to light yellowish with brownish veins [1] |
Identification resources
| Name | Year published | Resource link | Descriptive keyword | Language | Geographic purview | Author | Year published |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Orthoptera Species File | View URL | Species identification, Biology | English | Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, Oceania | Orthoptera Species File Online |
Distribution
The South American locust is distributed across Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay. [3] During plague years S. cancellata has expanded in Argentina as far as 42°S. [4]
For more information and distribution records see [GBIF]
See SAL distribution map in Trumper et al. (2022) page 6. [1]
Biology
| Phase | Developmental time |
|---|---|
| Eggs | |
| Hopper | |
| Adult | |
| Laying-fledging | |
| Adult maturation | |
| Total |
Habitat and ecology
The South American locust prefers arid lands mostly in a desert and semi-desert central permanent breeding zone of Catamarca and La Rioja, Argentina [5] that receives 250–400 mm of annual precipitation. [6] Vegetation is characterized as wooded steppe of Prosopis and Larrea bushes with common grasses like Sporobolus and Panicum or in soil with salt content Atriplex or Suaeda. [7] Habitat heterogeneity supports breeding populations even during unfavorable times [6] [7] as S. cancellata shows flexibility in sexual maturation and egg development over dry seasons. They depend on late spring and late summer precipitation (November and March) and pass the dry season (April–October) as nymphs in a kind of reproductive diapause. [8] Populations in Argentina are highest when La Rioja and Catamarca receive winter rains, allowing for three generations in a season. [9] The South American locust is highly polyphagous, eating across many plant families and almost all cultivated plants. [3] Field studies on wild populations show that SAL marching bands are carbohydrate (not protein) seeking and that access to carbohydrates is likely important for long-distance migration (Cease et al. in review referenced in SAL Agronomy paper) and higher survival rates. [10]
For more extensive information on habitats, feeding preferences, life cycle parameters, natural enemies and biological control see Trumper et al. (2022). [1]
- Exhibits locust phase polyphenism [3]
- Invasion area can cover nearly 4,000,000 km2 from central and northern Argentina, Uruguay, southern Brazil, Paraguay, southeast Bolivia, and central and northern Chile [2]
- Feeding behavior: polyphagous, native plants and different crops including soybeans, sorghum, maize, peanut, and citrus, as well as pasture grass. [6] Research suggests field populations of 5th and 6th instar nymphs prefer carbohydrate-biased diets [10]
- Life Cycle: Sánchez et al. (1997) [11] reported stage duration in days for egg (15±1.005), nymph (33.24±1.302), adult female (87.60±34.84) and male (89.80±26.85)
- Sánchez et al. (1997) [11] found mean fecundity was 161±93 eggs/female and the number of eggs per pod was 73±18
- Historically considered the most serious agricultural pest in Argentina
- The only swarming locust in southern South America
Land-use / climate change
Much of the Gran Chaco forest has been cleared, primarily to increase grazing pastures but also cropland.[12] Stav et al. (2020) [10] found that S. cancellata performed best on invasive grasses, suggesting that deforestation could help expand their outbreak zone.
It is anticipated that the outbreak range of the South American locust will expand in higher latitudes and altitudes. [13] [14]
Pest status
Recent outbreaks
S. cancellata has a long and well-documented history of outbreaks in Argentina, dating back to 1538. [15] During plague years, locusts were dispersed across half the country (1.4 million km2 ). [15] Plagues increased during the 1800s to 1954, regularly affecting 15 of Argentina’s 22 provinces and damaging a wide range of cultivated plants. [9] [6] In the 1960’s strong monitoring and control efforts (relying on DDT) contained outbreaks to only three small occurrences in 1961, 1989, and 2010. [7] [4] Monitoring continued in La Rioja and Catamarca, two provinces in northwest Argentina where locust populations remained, but ceased operations in other areas due to lack of locust populations. [4]
Starting in 2015, after 60 years of only small sporadic outbreaks, a large upsurge began that continues to cause serious management issues today. Locust swarms up to 25 km2 were identified and controlled in Santiago del Estero province. Then in 2016 an outbreak of nymphal bands threatened 10,000+ha of cropland in Bolivia with swarms first detected in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Cabezas county. [4] Similar swarms appeared in Paraguay, concentrated on the Brazilian border, and later spread south into Argentina, provoking international meetings, declarations of emergency, and coordination efforts to strengthen response plans and regional detection systems.
What environmental conditions caused the current South American locust outbreak?
Rainfall and elevated winter temperatures led to the expansion of suitable breeding areas and extreme population growth. In 2015, according to Medina et. al (2017), La Rioja, Catamarca, and Santiago del Estero provinces had both a mild winter and frequent rains from late winter to spring. This weather increased locust growth rate, and likely broke the winter adult reproductive diapause earlier than usual (Hunter & Cosenzo, 1990), allowing for a third generation. It also enabled the South American locust, which usually only has two generations per year, to add a third generation of exponential population growth. The favorable environmental conditions also expanded suitable breeding areas, making it difficult for available scouting personnel.
What are the challenges to maintaining and expanding South American locust management capacity?
Fueled by favorable environmental factors, as locusts began migrating they moved into areas with no trained personnel and little infrastructure for monitoring and management (Medina et al. 2017). The lack of long-term funding and organization led to several weaknesses in preventive strategy and is a familiar ‘vicious governance cycle’ in locust management. The GLI was invited in the early stages of the recent outbreak with stakeholders from Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, to participate in round table discussions and field research trips which have since evolved into formal long-term projects to understand both the complex ecology of the South American locust as well as the governance structures that surround it’s management in an effort to find solutions to current barriers to more sustainable and effective management.
What is the historical context of South American locust swarms?
As explained in the September 2017 issue of Metaleptea, “The resurgence of the South American locust (Schistocerca cancellata)”
“The South American locust, S. cancellata, appeared as a destructive agricultural pest in 1538, affecting cassava crops in Buenos Aires (Gastón, 1969). While S. cancellata has an expanded range during plagues—from southeast Bolivia, Paraguay, south Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, and Argentina as far as the 42°S—the biggest impact and economic losses have been in Argentina (Kölher, 1962; Lieberman, 1972). Indeed, virtually no crop in Argentina has escaped locust swarms (de Wysiecki and Lange, 2005). Similar to how the Rocky Mountain locust (Melanoplus spretus Walsh, 1866) shaped pest management in the U.S., the history of pest management in Argentina began with S. cancellata. Locust control campaigns in the early 19th century gave birth to the first governmental agency with the mission of controlling pests and regulating national plant health, a task that is now integrated into the duties of the National Plant and Animal Health and Quality Service of Argentina (SENASA). During plague years, locusts would be distributed across half the country (1.4 million km2) (Gastón, 1969). Stories were passed on at family gatherings of clear skies suddenly darkened by swarms and crops entirely lost to locusts. However, by the 1960s after many years of control campaigns heavily relying on DDT, a preventive strategy was officially established that succeeded in keeping the locust population at bay. The locusts were restricted to a relatively small region in northwest Argentina (Barrera and Turk, 1983; Waloff and Pedgley, 1986; Hunter and Cosenzo, 1990). In Argentina, 1954 was the last year a major plague period was reported (De Wysiecki and Lange, 2005). Monitoring continued in Catamarca and La Rioja provinces where locust populations remained, but was minimal elsewhere because the locust populations had diminished.”
Read the whole paper here
Read more details about the recent outbreaks and management strategy in Trumper et al. (2022). [1]
Outbreak media coverage
Alerta por el ingreso de una gran manga de langostas en Santiago del Estero (August 06, 2020)
Otras dos mangas de langostas invadieron Formosa y Chaco (July 30, 2020)
Argentina Battles Locust Plague in Northern Province (July 31, 2020)
Argentina tomó control de la manga de langostas y Uruguay respira (July 27, 2020)
Argentina and Brazil crops threatened by locust swarm (June 29, 2020)
Argentina, Brazil monitor massive locust swarm; crop damage seen limited (June 25, 2020)
Dos mangas de langostas amenazan Santiago de Estero (June 06, 2020)
Ingresó una nueva manga de langostas de Paraguay (May 08, 2020)
Argentina Scrambles to Fight Biggest Plague of Locusts in 60 Years (January 25, 2016)
| Name | Year published | Resource link | Descriptive keyword | Language | Geographic purview | Author | Year published |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alerta por el ingreso de una gran manga de langostas en Santiago del Estero | 2020 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks | Spanish | Argentina | Noticias AgroPecuarias | 2020 |
| Argentina and Brazil crops threatened by locust swarm | 2020 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks | English | Argentina, Brazil | BBC News | 2020 |
| Argentina Battles Locust Plague in Northern Province | 2020 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks | English | Argentina | Voice of America | 2020 |
| Argentina Scrambles to Fight Biggest Plague of Locusts in 60 Years | 2016 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks | English | Argentina | The New York Times | 2016 |
| Argentina tomó control de la manga de langostas y Uruguay respira | 2020 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks | Spanish | Argentina | El Observador | 2020 |
| Argentina, Brazil monitor massive locust swarm; crop damage seen limited. Reuters | 2020 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks | English | Argentina, Brazil | Reuters | 2020 |
| Dos mangas de langostas amenazan Santiago de Estero | 2020 | View URL | Early warning, Media article, Weather, Aerial control operations, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations | Spanish | South America | El Agrario | 2020 |
| Ingresó una nueva manga de langostas de Paraguay | 2020 | View URL | Media article, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Outbreaks, Infestations, Early warning, Management, Agriculture | Spanish | Paraguay | Diario Hoy | 2020 |
| Latin America: South American locust outbreak in Metaleptea | 2020 | View URL | Newsletter, Community development, Biology, Physiology, Behavior, Insect behavior, Ecology, Media article, Taxonomy, Locusts, Locust outbreaks, Outbreaks, Infestations, Decision making, Grasshoppers, Journal publication, Insect locomotion, Mating behavior
|
English | Argentina | The Orthopterists' Society | 2020 |
| Locust swarm of up to 40 million hits Brazil as country struggles to handle coronavirus crisis | 2020 | View URL | Media article, Outbreaks, Locust outbreaks, Locusts, Infestations, Forecasting, Early warning, Rainfall, Migration, Crop health, Agriculture, Chemical control, Weather, Management | English | Brazil | The Sun | 2020 |
| NSF BPRI video docuseries | 2025 | Documentary, Video | English | Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, Oceania | Behavioral Plasticity Research Institute | 2025 | |
| Otras dos mangas de langostas invadieron Formosa y Chaco | 2020 | View URL | Media article, Monitoring, Early warning, Locusts, Infestations, Agriculture, Crop health, Public health | Spanish | Argentina | Todo Noticias | 2020 |
| Outbreaks of locusts could threaten wheat and barley crops in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay | 2020 | View URL | Locusts, Locust outbreaks, Outbreaks, Agriculture, After action review, Community development, Crop health, Early warning, Environmental assessment, Forecasting, Integrated pest management, Management, Overview, Communication resource, Summary
|
English | Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | 2020 |
| Presentación del Sistema Regional de Alerta por langostas | 2021 | View URL | Video, Emergency alerts | Spanish | Argentina, Bolivia, Uruguay, Brazil, Paraguay | The National Food Safety and Quality Service | 2021 |
Organizations associated with the South American locust
| Organization name | Acronym | Website | Type | Focus | Focus keywords | Geographic purview |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Behavioral Plasticity Research Institute | BPRI | View URL | Other | Research, Education | Phenotypic plasticity, Phase polyphenism | Texas, Arizona, Missouri, Illinois |
| Global Locust Initiative | GLI | View URL | University | Research, Education, Information Hub | Sustainable development, Ecology, Nutrition, Social science, Natural sciences, Agriculture, Agroecology, Biology, Behavior, Biological control, Climate change, Education, Sustainability science, Geometric framework, Grazing, Governance, Food security, Arts and humanities, Land use management, Landscape ecology, Locusts, Migration, Phase polyphenism, Phenotypic plasticity, Soil science | Arizona |
| Government of Catamarca | View URL | Government | Development, Management, Education, Governance | Community development, Control, Coordination, Forecasting, Monitoring, Policy, Regional cooperation, Sustainable development, Technology | ||
| Government of La Rioja | View URL | Government | Governance | |||
| Government of the Province of Córdoba | View URL | Government | Research | Climate change, Natural sciences | ||
| Government of the province of Jujuy | View URL | Government | Management | |||
| Inter-American Coordinating Group in Plant Protection | GICSV | View URL | Intergovernmental Organization | Governance | Regional cooperation, Natural sciences | |
| Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture | IICA | View URL | Non-governmental Organization | Development | Agricultural development, Natural sciences | |
| International Center for Tropical Agriculture | CIAT | View URL | Non-profit Organization | Development, Management | Food security, Agricultural development, Monitoring | |
| Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Supply Brazil | View URL | Government | Development, Management | Agricultural development, Control, Emergency assistance | ||
| National Agricultural Technology Institute | INTA | View URL | Government | Education, Information Hub, Governance, Research, Management | Training, Regional cooperation, Agricultural development, Control, Sustainable development, Coordination, Monitoring, Natural sciences | |
| National Plant and Seed Health and Quality Service | SENAVE | View URL | Government | Management, Governance, Research, Funding | Monitoring, Control, Agricultural development, Coordination, Regional cooperation, Sustainable development, Technology, Emergency assistance, Natural sciences | |
| Servicio Nacional de Saneamiento | SENASA PY | View URL | Government | Information Hub, Governance, Management | Monitoring, Control, Natural sciences | |
| Servicio Nacional de Sanidad Agropecuaria e Inocuidad Alimentaria | SENASAG | View URL | Government | Management, Research | Control, Agricultural development, Monitoring, Natural sciences | |
| Servicio Nacional de Sanidad Inocuidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria | SAGARPA-SENASICA | View URL | Government | Governance, Management | Regional cooperation, Monitoring, Control, Natural sciences | |
| Servivio Nacional de Sanidad Agraria | SENASA PE | View URL | Government | Governance, Management | Regional cooperation, Monitoring, Control, Natural sciences | |
| The National Food Safety and Quality Service | SENASA AR | View URL | Government | Management, Governance, Funding, Research, Education | Control, Coordination, Emergency assistance, Forecasting, Monitoring, Regional cooperation, Technology, Training, Agricultural development, Sustainable development, Natural sciences |
Gallery
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Late stage instar emerging from its exuviae -
Bands of marching nymphs often climb prominent objects including plants and rocks -
South American locust damage to the bark of a legume sapling -
Side-by-side gregarious and solitarious nymphs demonstrating stark variation in color
Resources
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Trumper EV, Cease AJ, Cigliano MM, Bazán FC, Lange CE, Medina HE, Overson RP, Therville C, Pocco ME, Piou C, Zagaglia G, Hunter D (2022) A Review of the Biology, Ecology, and Management of the South American Locust, Schistocerca cancellata (Serville, 1838), and Future Prospects. Agronomy 12: 135. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12010135
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Pocco ME, Cigliano MM, Foquet B, Lange CE, Nieves EL, Song H (2019) Density-Dependent Phenotypic Plasticity in the South American Locust, Schistocerca cancellata (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 112: 458–472. https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/saz032
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 COPR (1982). The Locust and Grasshopper Agricultural Manual. London: Overseas Pest Research. 690.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Medina H, Cease A, Trumper E (2017) The resurgence of the South American locust (Schistocerca cancellata). Metaleptea 37: 5.
- ↑ Köhler P (1962) Ecologia de la zona central y de gregarización de la langosta en la Republica Argentina. Idia Supplement No. 7, 108 pp.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Le Gall M, Overson R, Cease A (2019) A global review on locusts (Orthoptera: Acrididae) and their interactions with livestock grazing practices. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7: 263. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00263
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Waloff Z and Pedgley D (1986) Comparative biogeography and biology of the South American locust, Schistocerca cancellata (Serville), and the south african desert locust, s. gregaria flaviventris(Burmeister) (Orthoptera: Acrididae): A review. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 76(1), 1-20. doi:10.1017/S0007485300015236
- ↑ Barrera M and Turk S (1983) Estado actual de la langosta Schistocera cancellata paranensis (Burm.) en la Republica Argentina: neuvos aportes a su bioecologia. Acta Zoologica Lilloana, 27, pp.15-29.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Hunter D and Cosenzo E (1990) The origin of plagues and recent outbreaks of the South American locust, Schistocerca cancellata (Orthoptera: Acrididae) in Argentina. Bullen of Entomological Research 80: 295-300 doi:10.1017/S0007485300050495
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Talal S, Cease AJ, Youngblood JP, Farington R, Trumper EV, Medina HE, Rojas JE, Fernando Copa A, Harrison JF (2020) Plant carbohydrate content limits performance and lipid accumulation of an outbreaking herbivore. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287: 20202500. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.2500
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Sánchez N, Wittenstein E, Wysiecki M, Lange C (1997) Life History Parameters of the Gregarious Phase of the South American locust, Schistocerca cancellata (Serville) (Orthoptera: Acrididae), under Laboratory Conditions. Journal of Orthoptera Research 23: 121. https://doi.org/10.2307/3503545
- ↑ Baumann M, Israel C, Piquer-Rodríguez M, Gavier-Pizarro G, Volante JN, Kuemmerle T (2017) Deforestation and cattle expansion in the Paraguayan Chaco 1987–2012. Regional Environmental Change 17: 1179–1191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1109-5
- ↑ Youngblood JP, Cease AJ, Talal S, Copa F, Medina HE, Rojas JE, Trumper EV, Angilletta MJ Jr, Harrison JF (2022) Climate change expected to improve digestive rate and trigger range expansion in outbreaking locusts. Ecological Monographs. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1550
- ↑ Ries MW, Adriaansen C, Aldobai S, Berry K, Bal AB, Catenaccio MC, Cigliano MM, Cullen DA, Deveson T, Diongue A, Foquet B, Hadrich J, Hunter D, Johnson DL, Pablo Karnatz J, Lange CE, Lawton D, Lazar M, Latchininsky AV, Lecoq M, Le Gall M, Lockwood J, Manneh B, Overson R, Peterson BF, Piou C, Poot-Pech MA, Robinson BE, Rogers SM, Song H, Springate S, Therville C, Trumper E, Waters C, Woller DA, Youngblood JP, Zhang L, Cease A (2024) Global perspectives and transdisciplinary opportunities for locust and grasshopper pest management and research. Journal of Orthoptera Research 33(2): 169–216. doi:10.3897/jor.33.112803.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Gastón J (1969) Síntesis histórica de las invasiones de langosta en la Argentina. Publ. Misc. No. 433. Secretaria de Estado de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Buenos Aires, 32 pp.