Glossary
A
Abdomen
The hind region of a grasshopper's body. (Pfadt 2002)
Absolute density
The number of individual grasshoppers per unit of area, such as a square yard, square meter, acre, or hectare. (Pfadt 2002)
Accidentals
Adult grasshoppers in locations where the species does not complete its life cycle. (Brust et al. 2020)
Acephate
The common name of an chemical insecticide (Richman et al 1993)
Acrididae
Short-horned grasshopper family name. (Richman et al 1993)
Adiabatic process
Thermodynamic transformation which occurs without exchange of heat between the system considered and its environment.
Aedeagus
The reproductive organ of male arthropods that secretes sperm during copulation with a female. (Pfadt 2002)
Afrotropical
The biogeographic realm spanning Africa (including Madagascar and other nearby islands) south of the Sahara.
Aggregation
The first stage of gregarigation.
Allotype
A paratype specimen of the opposite sex to the holotype used in making the original description of a species. (Brust et al. 2020)
Alpine tundra
Grasslands, shrublands, or bare rocky areas at altitudes above the tree line on mountains.
Anal area of tegmen
The hind or posterior part of the tegmen. (Brust et al. 2020)
Angiosperms
A clade of plants that reproduce using flowers for pollen transmission, and seeds contained in fruits.
Ant inquiline
Living in the nests of ants.
Antenna
A pair of segmented sensory structures (feelers) located on the head of a grasshopper. (Pfadt 2002)
Antennal segment number
The number of segments which make up an antenna.
Anterior
Pertaining to the front of the body. (Brust et al. 2020)
Apex
The terminal or distal part of a body structure. (Brust et al. 2020)
Apical
Located at or associated with the apex (Richman et al 1993)
Appetitive flight
Local movement by flight concerned with finding food, mates, and egg laying sites. (Brust et al. 2020)
Apterous
Without wings. (Brust et al. 2020)
Arbicole
term used to describe organisms that inhabit trees. (Richman et al 1993)
Arboreal
associated with or appearing similar to a tree. (Richman et al 1993)
Arborivorous
Feeding on the leaves of trees.
Arcuate
Arched or humped. (Brust et al. 2020)
Arolium
A padlike structure at the end of the insect leg, between the claws. (Brust et al. 2020)
Arthropod
Invertebrate organisms with limbs and bodies that are typically jointed. They are a part of the phylum Arthropoda. (Richman et al 1993)
Arthropoda
A group or phylum of animals that have segmented bodies, exoskeletons, and jointed legs. (Pfadt 2002)
Articulate
To connect by a joint. (Brust et al. 2020)
Australasian
The biogeographic realm spanning eastern Indonesia, New Guinea and surrounding islands, Australia, and New Zealand.
C
C 3 grasses
Metabolic pathway for carbon dioxide fixation that allows plants to do well in areas of moderate temperatures and plentiful water with high carbon dioxide concentrations. (Beentje 2010)
C 4 grasses
Metabolic pathway for carbon dioxide fixation that allows plants to have a competitive advantage under hot and arid conditions. (Beentje 2010)
Caelifera
The suborder of Orthoptera that is distinguished by short, pronged ovipositors in females. Means "chisel-bearing" in Latin.
Calcar
A spinelike process of the integument connected by a joint. (Brust et al. 2020)
Carbaryl
Chemical common name for Sevin, which is an insecticide. (Richman et al 1993)
Carina
Ridge or keel (Richman et al 1993)
Carinula
A little carina or ridge. (Brust et al. 2020)
Cathemeral
Active during both day and night hours. Sound-producing Orthoptera with this activity pattern stridulate continuously at nearly all times.
Caudal
Pertaining to the tail end of the organism. (Richman et al 1993)
Cell
Pertaining to wing anatomy; spaces on wings that are encircled partially or completely why veins. (Richman et al 1993)
Cercus
An appendage on the tenth abdominal segment, which is typically triangular and short in grasshoppers. (Brust et al. 2020)
Chaparral
A semi-arid vegetation community dominated by shrubs and short trees that do not form a canopy.
Chevrons
A pattern of v-shaped markings in one direction on the medial area of the grasshopper's hind femur. (Brust et al. 2020)
Chitin
Type of polysaccharide; composes portions of the integument. (Richman et al 1993)
Chromatophase
A phase defined by coloration.
Circumtropical
Found throughout the world's tropical regions.
Clavate
Club-shaped or clubbed at the tip (in reference to grasshopper antennae). (Pfadt 2002)
Clean culture of crops
Frequent cultivation of crops, or the use of weed killers and protective coverings, such that a particular culture is free of weeds or pest insects. (Pfadt 2002)
Cloud forest
A high-elevation forest characterized by frequent fog and often having a colder climate than surrounding lowland forests.
Clypeus
The front liplike sclerite on which the labrum articulates. (Brust et al. 2020)
Coastal
Cohesion
In reference to locusts, the tendency to remain united in swarms and bands, which helps them retain their identity during displacements.
Cold desert
A desert environment having short summers and long winters that may receive snow.
Complete metamorphosis
Metamorphosis through which the insect develops by four distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa, adult. This type of metamorphosis is not found in grasshoppers. (Brust et al. 2020)
Compound eye
An eye made up of many individual eye elements each represented externally by a corneal facet. (Brust et al. 2020)
Concave
Hollowed out like the interior of a sphere segment. (Brust et al. 2020)
Concentration
An increase in the population density of grasshoppers or locusts.
Conifers
A class of gymnosperm trees with needle-like leaves that reproduce using pollen cones and seed cones. Examples include pines, firs, spruces, cedars, junipers, cypresses, and larches.
Continental endemic
A species that is restricted to a small area of a continent. Applies to mainland Australia as it is large enough to be universally recognized as a continent.
Convex
Like the outer curved surface of a sphere segment. (Brust et al. 2020)
Cosmopolitan
A species occurs on all continents except Antarctica (often through introductions).
Costa
Longitudinal vein located on the wing. The vein forms the anterior or leading edge of the wing. (Richman et al 1993)
Costal
Referring to the anterior portion of any wing. (Brust et al. 2020)
Coxa
The basal segment of an insect leg, articulating the leg to the body. (Brust et al. 2020)
Crenulation
Structure that is crinkles; outline is irregular or serrate. (Richman et al 1993)
Crepitate
A snapping, popping, or cracking nosie genereated by flight, which is typically species-specific. (Otte 1970)
Crepitates
The production of snapping or crackling sounds made by the wings in flight. (Vickery and Kevan 1985)
Crepitation
The production of snapping or crackling sounds made by the wings in flight.
Cristate
Having a prominent carina or crest. (Brust et al. 2020)
Cryptopleuron
Sideways extensions of the pronotum, which are unique to the order Orthoptera. (Song 2018)
Curate
To mount, label, store, and protect museum specimens. (Brust et al. 2020)
B
Bait
Method of applying pesticides by mixing them into the pests' preferred food sources. (Richman et al 1993)
Band
An assemblage of nymphs or hoppers in large numbers which show or have shown sustained concerted displacement (by marching), or which show gregarious behavior.
Basal
At or near the base of a structure. (Brust et al. 2020)
Beach
A sandy or rocky shoreline along an ocean or large lake.
Bilobate
Divided into two lobes. (Brust et al. 2020)
Bioclimatic law
Hopkin's bioclimatic law: for every rise in elevation of 500 feet, events in the life cycle are delayed four days. (Pfadt 2002)
Biological control
Biological control refers to the management of pests, diseases, or invasive species using other living organisms. This method involves introducing natural enemies, such as predators, parasites, or pathogens, to control the population of the target organism. The goal is to reduce the population of the pest or invasive species to levels that are not harmful to crops, ecosystems, or human health while minimizing the use of chemical pesticides or other harmful control methods. Biological control can be employed in agriculture, forestry, and conservation efforts. It often involves a careful selection and introduction of specific organisms that prey upon or parasitize the target pest. Successful biological control methods take into account various ecological factors to establish a sustainable balance between the target pest and its natural enemies without causing harm to non-target species or the environment. A classical approach to biological control is called inoculative introduction where an agent not previously present is introduced to perform predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other biological methods to kill an unwanted organism. Inoculative augmentation is the application of an indigenous agent to accumulate in the biocontrol agent population. Another method is inundative augmentation, the mass application of an agent with the primary objective of high initial kill. [1] In the case of locusts and grasshoppers, biological control might involve the introduction or manipulation of natural enemies such as specific pathogens, predators, parasites, or parasitoids to manage their populations in an environmentally friendly manner. (Lomer et al. 2001)
Biopesticides
A biopesticide is a type of pesticide derived from natural materials, such as animals, plants, bacteria, or minerals, that is used to control pests, including insects, weeds, fungi, and other harmful organisms. Unlike conventional chemical pesticides, biopesticides are generally considered to be environmentally friendly and have less impact on non-target organisms, humans, and the ecosystem. Entomopathogenic fungi, such as Metarhizium and Beauveria, have shown promise in controlling locust and grasshopper populations. These fungi infect the insects and cause mortality, offering an effective biopesticide.
Biotic potential
The inherent properties of an organism to survive, reproduce, and increase in numbers. (Brust et al. 2020)
Bisinuate
A structure that is doubly sinuate, or containing two wavy indentations. (Richman et al 1993)
Blastokinesis
Active movement of the grasshopper embryo by which it passes form the ventral to the dorsal side of the egg and at the same time revolves 180 degrees on its long axis. (Brust et al. 2020)
Bog
A wetland having nutrient-poor acidic soils and a layer of peat formed primarily from mosses.
Brachypterous
With short wings. (Brust et al. 2020)
Broadleaf trees
Angiosperm (flowering) trees, whose leaves are broad and flat as opposed to the needle-like leaves of conifers.
Brood
All individuals that hatch at about one time from eggs laid by one series of parents and that normally mature at about the same time; a group of individuals of a species that have hatched into young or have become adult at approximately the same time, and live together in a defined and limited area (may be of different generations). (Brust et al. 2020)
Burrow commensal
Living in the burrows of mammals or reptiles.
E
Early hatching
Hatching during mid-spring from mid-April to late May.
Eclosion
The hatching of the larva or nymph from its egg. (Brust et al. 2020)
Egg pod
A case made of gluelike secretions and soil particles enclosing a clutch of grasshopper eggs. (Brust et al. 2020)
Eidophase
A phase defined by physical appearance, including coloration, measure, or form.
Emarginate
Notched. (Brust et al. 2020)
Endemic
A species's native range is entirely within a single country, administrative unit, or ecological region.
Ensifera
The suborder of Orthoptera that is distinguished by long, narrow ovipositors in females. Means "sword-bearing" in Latin.
Ensiform
Broad at the base and narrowing to the tip (in reference to grasshopper antennae). (Pfadt 2002)
Entire
Structure with smooth outline, there are no notches or teeth. (Richman et al 1993)
Epiproct
The epiproct, also known as the supra-anal plate, is a dorsal plate located at the tip of the abdomen in males (Pfadt 2002)
Epizootic
A disease contracted by a large number of animals in a population; analagous to an epidemic in humans. (Pfadt 2002)
Erratics
Grasshoppers that have dispersed into a habitat in which they are unable to complete their life cycle and reproduce. (Pfadt 2002)
Estuary
Brackish wetlands in the area where a river flows into an ocean.
Ethophase
A phase defined by behavior.
Evergreen trees
Trees that maintain their leaves year-round.
Exoskeleton
The chitinous external armor of an insect, which provides the structure of the body and protects the internal organs.
Exserted
Jutting outwards from the body (Richman et al 1993)
D
Day degrees
The degrees each day that the average daily temperature is above a threshold temperature for development. For each day that a process takes to complete, these degrees are totaled to yield the day degrees required for the process such as egg incubation or nymphal development. (Brust et al. 2020)
Deciduous trees
Trees that seasonally drop and regrow their leaves.
Decline
Period characterized by breeding failure and/or successful control leading to the dissociation of swarming populations and the onset of recessions. (Michel Lecoq (2021))
Deimatic display
A display that is used to startle predators and make an individual look larger when threatened.
Deme
A local population of a species. (Pfadt 2002)
Desert
Sparsely vegetated arid land with scarce water sources.
Detritivorous
Feeding on dead organic material.
Diapause
Cessation of embryonic growth. (Pfadt 2002)
Dimorphism
Two distinct forms (Richman et al 1993)
Discoidal vein
A vein that continues from the median vein after it passes the transverse median vein, and runs along the back edge of the first discoidal cell. (Richman et al 1993)
Disk of pronotum
The dorsal surface of the pronotum, which is divided into two halves by the median carina. (Pfadt 2002)
Disk of wings
The central area of the hindwings, within the margins or within the submarginal band (when present). (Brust et al. 2020)
Dispersal
Outward spreading of grasshoppers from their place of origin. (Pfadt 2002)
Dispersion
The spacing of individuals in the habitat. (Pfadt 2002)
Dissociation
The process of transition from gregarious to solitary.
Distal
The part of an appendage farthest from the body. (Brust et al. 2020)
Distribution
The location of all habitats in which the species lives and reproduces; the area in which the species has been recorded. (Brust et al. 2020)
Distribution center
The circumscribed area of habitats in which a species is almost always present and where dense populations regularly occur. (Brust et al. 2020)
Diurnal
Mostly or exclusively active during daylight hours.
Dominant species
With reference to grasshoppers, the most abundant species in an assemblage of grasshopper species. (Pfadt 2002)
Dorsal
Pertaining to the top surface of the body. (Brust et al. 2020)
Dorsal bask
The behavior of a grasshopper to increase body heat by aligning its dorsum (back) perpendicular to rays of the sun. (Pfadt 2002)
Dot map
A map showing by dots the locations where individuals of a species have been found and recorded. (Pfadt 2002)
Drumming
Tapping on surfaces with the legs or abdomen to communicate with other individuals.
G
Gallery forest
A forested area occurring along a river surrounded by open areas such as grassland, chaparral, or desert.
Gena
The "cheek," or side of the head below the compound eye. (Pfadt 2002)
Genital plate
The ventral plate at the end of the grasshopper's abdomen, to which the cerci and genital structures are either attached or located nearby. (Richman et al 1993)
Genitalia
The external reproductive structures. (Brust et al. 2020)
Geographic range
The area bounded by the location of outlying populations of a species; the location of the smallest area within an imaginary boundary line that encloses all populations of a species. (Brust et al. 2020)
Geophilous
Living on the ground or ground-dwelling. (Pfadt 2002)
Glaucous
Color that sea-green or pale teal (Richman et al 1993)
Glome
A population of solitary locusts at a high enough density for mutual perception to be possible.
Gondwanan
Distributed across the former areas of Gondwana including South America, Africa, Oceania, and southern Asia.
Gradual metamorphosis
Metamorphosis through which the insect develops by three distinct stages: egg, nymph, and adult. This is the type of metamorphosis by which grasshoppers develop. (Brust et al. 2020)
Graminicole
Species that are grass-dwelling. (Richman et al 1993)
Graminivorous
Feeding upon grasses and sedges. (Vickery and Kevan 1985)
Grassland
An area of land covered by grasses and forbs, with sparse to no tree cover.
Gravid
With developing internal eggs, analagous to pregnant for egg-laying species.
Gregarious
A term which relates to locusts which are socially attracted in large numbers and maintain cohesion of a mobile population of individuals.
Gregarious behavior
Gregarious behavior in locusts refers to a transformative shift triggered by environmental factors like population density and resource abundance. Locusts can undergo a profound change in behavior, physiology, and appearance, forming immense swarms when conditions are favorable. In this gregarious phase, locusts gather in dense groups, becoming highly mobile and active, displaying altered coloration and morphology. These swarms can pose a significant threat to agriculture and the environment, as they voraciously consume vegetation, potentially causing widespread damage to crops and endangering food security in affected areas. (Pener and Simpson 2009~~ Uvarov 1921~~Uvarov 1966~~Pener 1991)
Griseous
Light color, mottled with brown or black. (Brust et al. 2020)
Gymnosperms
A clade of plants that reproduce using pollen without flowers, and produce seeds that are not contained in true fruits.
F
F 1 generation
The generation of hybrids arising from a first cross. (Pfadt 2002)
F 2 generation
The second generation of hybrids arising from mating with other hybrids or with a parent species.
Facultative parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis by female individuals that are also capable of sexual reproduction.
Fascia dorsalis
transverse band or line that runs across both the wings. (Richman et al 1993)
Fasciate
Banded. (Brust et al. 2020)
Fastigium
The portion of the top of the head which lies in front of the compuond eyes. (Pfadt 2002)
Femoral stripe
The dark stripe runing along the dorsal medial area of the hind femur of a grasshopper. (Brust et al. 2020)
Femur
The stout or upper segment of the grasshopper's hindleg. (Brust et al. 2020)
Femur shaking
A movement which consists of shaking the femora, typically repetitively. This may be silent or create noise, and is performed by both male and female grasshoppers of certain species to cause separation of individuals. (Otte 1970)
Femur tipping
A single quick raising and lowering of the femora, which is typically silent. This type of behavior typically occurs in male-male encounters, but may also be performed by courting males in some species. (Otte 1970)
Fen
A wetland having mineral-rich alkaline soils and a layer of peat formed from sedges and mosses.
Ferruginous
Resembling iron or rust in color. (Brust et al. 2020)
File
A ridge resembling a file located on the ventral surface of the tegmen or forewing; it functions as part of the sound-producing system in conjunction with the scraper. (Richman et al 1993)
Filiform
Thin and threadlike (in reference to grasshopper antennae). (Pfadt 2002)
Flank bask
The behavior of a grasshopper to increase body heat by presenting a side perpendicularly to rays of the sun. (Pfadt 2002)
Fledge
Acquisition of the adult wings. (Brust et al. 2020)
Flight displays
Specialized flights performed by solitary males to attract sexually receptive females of their own species. (Otte 1970)
Flightless
Lacking any capability to fly.
Floodplain
A grassland or forest ecosystem that floods seasonally as rain increases the volume of rivers.
Forbivorous
Feeding on forbs or shrubs.
Forewings
The front pair of wings on a grasshopper, which are leathery and narrow with nearly parallel sides. Synonymous to tegmina. (Pfadt 2002)
Fossorial
Adapted for a specialized burrowing lifestyle.
Foveola
A small depression in the integument. (Brust et al. 2020)
Frass
The waste produced by insects; dry and pellet-shaped (Richman et al 1993)
Frons
The front of the head between the compound eyes and extending to the clypeus. (Pfadt 2002)
Frontal costa
A wide ridge running down the middle of the frons, from the fastigium toward the margin of the clypeus. (Pfadt 2002)
Furcula
A pair of projections from the posterior edge of the tenth tergum on a male grasshopper. (Pfadt 2002)
Fuscous
Color of dark brown, approaching black. (Brust et al. 2020)
Fusiform
Tapers to a point; has a sharp edge (Richman et al 1993)
I
Imago
The fully developed or adult insect. (Brust et al. 2020)
Immaculate
Without spots or marks. (Brust et al. 2020)
Incertae sedis
Having unresolved higher taxon placements.
Indomalayan
The biogeographic realm spanning the southern portions of Asia.
Inquiline
Living partly or exclusively in the burrows or hives of other species.
Insecta
The taxonomic class which comprises all insects.
Insectivorous
Having a diet mainly or exclusively of insects and other arthropods.
Instar
The immature insect between two successive molts. (Brust et al. 2020)
Integument
The external surface or outer layer of an insect. (Pfadt 2002)
Intercalary vein
An additional longitudinal vein that forms from a thickened fold in the wing, roughly positioned between two existing veins. (Richman et al 1993)
Intermediate hatching
Hatching during late spring
Introduced species
A species that has established wild breeding populations outside of its native range after being moved by humans (through means such as releases, escapes, or unintentional dispersal).
Invasion cycle
A period between the appearance and disappearance of locust swarms.
Invertebrate
An animal or species which does not have a spinal column.
Island endemic
A species that is restricted to an archipelago or single island.
H
Herbicole
Type of species that inhabit areas with herbaceous vegetation. (Richman et al 1993)
Hindwings
The hind pair of wings on a grasshopper, which are membranous and fan-shaped. (Pfadt 2002)
Hirsute
Hairy. (Brust et al. 2020)
Holarctic
A species or higher taxon occurs in both the Palearctic and Nearctic realms.
Holotype
The single specimen designated as the "type" (or specimen which by which the species is described) by the author of the original description at time of publication. (Brust et al. 2020)
Hopper band
Group of gregarious hoppers of high density, that can move in a coherent manner. (Michel Lecoq (2021))
Hopperdozer
Mechanical tool intended to collect grasshoppers from agricultural fields or rangelands. (Richman et al 1993)
Hot desert
A desert environment having extremely hot long summers and short mild winters generally without snow.
Hyaline
Transparent and glassy. (Brust et al. 2020)
Hydropyle cells
Hydropyle cells are enlarged, specialized serosal cells in insect eggs, such as those of grasshoppers, that create a distinct water-absorbing structure known as the hydropyle. This structure functions as a regulated entry point for water, playing a critical role in moisture uptake during embryonic development and diapause.
K
Keel
A sharp, enlarged ridge or carina. (Brust et al. 2020)
Knee
The enlarged end of the hind femur. (Brust et al. 2020)
M
Macropterous
With well developed, long wings. (Brust et al. 2020)
Maculate
Spotted. (Brust et al. 2020)
Malathion
Type of insecticide; chemical common name of Malathion (Richman et al 1993)
Mandible
Insect mouthparts or appendages located near the mouth of an insect.
Marching bands
Marching bands are a term used to describe the behavior of nymphs as they move together in a coordinated manner. When locusts are in their gregarious phase, especially as nymphs, they often display collective movement patterns that can resemble a marching band in terms of their synchronized and organized motion. During this phase, locust nymphs might move in large groups, marching together in a line or in close proximity to each other as they forage for food or navigate their environment.
Marsh
A wetland dominated by tall grasses or similar monocot plants such as sedges and cattails.
Medial
Situated in or closest to the middle. (Brust et al. 2020)
Median carina
The longitudinal ridge or carina which divides the disk of the pronotum into left and right halves. (Pfadt 2002)
Medioventral
along the middle of the underside. (Richman et al 1993)
Mesosternal interspace
The area between the mesosternal lobes. (Brust et al. 2020)
Mesosternal lobes
The paired, separated posterior areas of the mesosternum. (Brust et al. 2020)
Mesosternum
The dorsal plate of the third segment of the thorax. (Richman et al 1993)
Mesothorax
The middle segment of the thorax, to which the forewings or tegmina are anchored. (Pfadt 2002)
Metamorphosis
The change of body form through which insects pass during development to adult. (Brust et al. 2020)
Metasternal interspace
The area between the metasternal lobes. (Brust et al. 2020)
Metasternal lobes
The paired, separated posterior areas of the metasternum. (Brust et al. 2020)
Metathorax
The hind segment of the thorax, two which the hindwings and hind legs are anchored. (Brust et al. 2020)
Metazona
The rear zone of the disk (dorsal surface) of the pronotum. This zone is separated from the prozona by the principal sulcus. (Pfadt 2002)
Model locust
Model locusts are thought to satisfy two specific criteria. First, they have a propensity to form dense groups, including large bands of hoppers and swarms of winged adults that migrate. Secondly, these insects display polyphenism, meaning that individuals living solitarily possess distinct characteristics from those living in groups. (Pener 1983)
Molt
The process of shedding outer layers of the integument. (Pfadt 2002)
Monocots
A division of angiosperm plants characterized by having a single embryonic leaf. Examples include grasses, sedges, cattails, bromeliads, orchids, lilies, agaves, and palms.
Monogamous
A mating system in which animals form male-female breeding pairs for at least one breeding season.
Monotypic
A higher taxon such as a family or genus only has a single species, or a species has no recognized subspecies.
Mounting
The movement of a male onto a female's back in preparation for copulation. (Otte 1970)
Mycopesticides
A mycopesticide is a type of pesticide derived from fungi. These biopesticides utilize fungal pathogens or their byproducts to control pest populations. One of the most commonly used fungi for mycopesticides is Beauveria bassiana. This fungus infects various insect species by attaching to their exoskeletons and penetrating their bodies. Once inside, it proliferates, eventually causing the death of the host. Other fungi, such as Metarhizium anisopliae, also serve as effective mycopesticides against pests. Mycopesticides are favored in integrated pest management strategies because they are often more targeted towards specific pests, less harmful to non-target organisms, and environmentally friendly compared to traditional chemical pesticides. They are biodegradable and can be an essential component in sustainable agriculture by reducing reliance on synthetic chemicals while effectively managing pest populations.
L
Late hatching
Lateral carinae
The carinae at the lateral edges of the pronotal disk or of the vertex of head. (Brust et al. 2020)
Lateral foveolae
A pair of variously shaped depressions (foveolae) which are often present in front of or at the sides of the fastigium. (Pfadt 2002)
Lateral lobe
The vertical sides of the pronotum. (Brust et al. 2020)
Longitudinal
running lengthwise across body or appendage. (Richman et al 1993)
O
Obligate parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis as the only functional method of reproduction for female individuals.
Obtuse
Angled at a degree beyond 90 degrees; not-pointed. (Richman et al 1993)
Occiput
The portion of the top of the head which lies behind the compuond eyes. (Pfadt 2002)
Oceanian
The biogeographic realm spanning the remote tropical Pacific islands.
Ocellus
A simple eye. Grasshoppers have three, one above the base of each antenna and one centrally located in the frontal costa. (Pfadt 2002)
Olivaceous
Olive green color. (Richman et al 1993)
Omnivorous
Having a diet of both plant and animal matter.
Orthoptera
An order of insects with gradual metamorphosis, chewing mouthparts, and leathery forewings. This order includes grasshoppers and crickets. (Pfadt 2002)
Outbreak
Marked increase in locust numbers due to concentration, multiplication, and gregarization. An outbreak occurs when locusts rapidly increase in number and form groups, bands and swarms in an area of about 50 km by 50 km in one part of a country. (FAO n.d.~~Michel Lecoq (2021))
Outbreak area
Limited regions where significant outbreaks have occurred and given rise to upsurges and invasions (Michel Lecoq (2021))
Outer margin of wing
The margin between apex and anal angle of the grasshopper hindwing. (Brust et al. 2020)
Overwinters as adults
Overwinters as eggs
Overwinters as nymphs
Oviposition
Depositing or laying eggs. (Pfadt 2002)
Ovipositor
In Caelifera, the paired digging and egg laying structures forming prongs at the end of the female abdomen. In Ensifera, the structure is long, narrow, and used to lay eggs in soil or plant tissue. (Brust et al. 2020)
Ovipositor valves
Three pairs of digging and egg laying structures at the end of the abdomen in female grasshoppers. (Brust et al. 2020)
N
Native species
A species in the geographical area it has lived in without human introductions.
Nearctic
The biogeographic realm spanning the polar, temperate, and subtropical portions of North America.
Neotropical
The biogeographic realm spanning Central America, the Caribbean, and South America.
Nocturnal
Most active during night hours. Common among Ensifera, in which sound-producing species stridulate primarily at night.
Nodulate
A surface sculpturing of small knots or swellings. (Brust et al. 2020)
Non model locust copy
There are a number of grasshopper species that satisfy the first criterion and therefore are often called locusts (non-model locusts). Yet, the occurrence of the second criterion, the manifestation of density-linked phase polyphenism, is less frequent. The following species are the most well documented as expressing both criterion: migratory locust, the brown locust, the desert locust, the Central American locust, the South American locust, the red locust, and the Moroccan locust. These species display these dramatic changes in population density, coloration, behavior, morphology, biochemistry, and life history traits. Non-model species are often "borderline" species that show elements of density-dependent polyphenism and are often considered locusts by farmers and practitioners. Pener and Simpson listed 23 acridid species that fall into this category that are not typically categorized as “true locusts.” Proving whether a particular grasshopper species exhibits density-dependent phase polyphenism is challenging because some believe it necessitates explicit experiments, particularly when its expression is not immediately evident. (Song 2011~~Pener and Yerushalmi 1998~~Song 2005~~ Uvarov 1977~~Applebaum and Heifetz 1999~~Pener and Simpson 2009)
Notum
The top of the thoractic segments. (Pfadt 2002)
Nymph
An immature insect of species with gradual metamorphosis (i.e., grasshoppers and locusts). A locust nymph refers to the immature stage of a locust, resembling a smaller version of the adult but without fully developed wings or reproductive capabilities. Throughout its growth, the nymph progresses through five distinct instars, which are the developmental stages between molts, each marked by the shedding of its exoskeleton and physiological changes. These instars represent the phases of growth from hatching to the final instar before the locust matures into an adult with full reproductive abilities and wing development. (Brust et al. 2020)
Q
Quadrate
Resembling a square or rectangular space. (Brust et al. 2020)
Quiescence
Quiescence in grasshopper eggs is a temporary state of suspended development caused by unfavorable external conditions, such as low temperature or insufficient moisture. Development resumes rapidly once conditions improve, without the need for an internal physiological trigger, distinguishing quiescence from diapause.
P
Palearctic
The biogeographic realm spanning Europe, most of Asia, and North Africa.
Pallium
The membrane stretching across the walls of the subgenital plate and covering the male genitalia. (Brust et al. 2020)
Parthenogenesis
Asexual reproduction by female animals. Can be facultative or obligate as a mode of reproduction.
Pathogen
Disease-causing organism. (Richman et al 1993)
Pellucid
(Brust et al. 2020)
Phase change
A reversible transition process between solitarious and gregarious phases in locusts in response to changes in population density. (Michel Lecoq (2021))
Phase polyphenism
Uvarov was the first to develop the theory of locust phases in 1921. [He put forward that Locusta migratoria and Locusta danica are actually the swarming and solitary forms or ‘phases’ of the same species. Uvarov further advanced the locust phase theory Uvarov 1966 and by Pener in 1991. Today we know that locusts show density-dependent phase polyphenism in morphology, anatomy, coloration, development, reproduction, physiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, behavior, chemical ecology (pheromones), and other aspects of ecology. The two phases are called ‘gregarious’ and ‘solitarious’. The term ‘solitarious’ was introduced by Uvarov (1966) instead of the former term ‘solitary’, to avoid the ambiguity of the latter (a gregarious phase insect may be alone, in which case it would be solitary but not yet solitarious), but both terms are used in the recent literature. (Pener and Simpson 2009~~ Uvarov 1921~~Uvarov 1966~~Pener 1991)
Phenotypic plasticity
Phenotypic plasticity refers to the capacity of an individual genotype to produce different phenotypes in response to stimuli or different environmental conditions. It enables organisms to adapt their physical, physiological, or behavioral characteristics to align with the prevailing environmental conditions. This adaptive mechanism arises from shifts in gene expression and the interactions between an organism's genes and its environment. These environmental cues triggering phenotypic plasticity can be highly diverse across species, encompassing factors such as touch, temperature, light, nutrient availability, predation risk, social interactions, and more. (Pigliucci et al 2006~~ Whitman and Ananthakrishnan 2009)
Plague
A plague is defined as a period of one or more years of widespread and heavy infestations, the majority of which occur as bands or swarms. A major plague exists when two or more regions are affected simultaneously. (Michel Lecoq (2021))
Pleuron
The sides of the thoractic segments. (Pfadt 2002)
Poikilotherm
Cold-blooded organism. (Richman et al 1993)
Polygynandrous
Mating system in which both males and females copulate with multiple members of the opposite sex. This is the mating strategy for most species of Orthoptera.
Polygynous
Mating system in which multiple females usually reproduce with a single male. Males may actively restrict access to females, or females generally do not mate more than once.
Polyphagous
Feeding on both grasses and forbs or woody plant leaves.
Posterior
Pertaining to the rear of the body. (Brust et al. 2020)
Postocular
Located behind the eyes
Pottering
Intermittent walking and wandering with frequent changes in direction. (Brust et al. 2020)
Preapical
Before the apex. (Brust et al. 2020)
Preoviposition period
The period between molting to the adult and the laying of the first group of eggs; in grasshppers this period typically lasts one to two weeks. (Pfadt 2002)
Preventative management
Strategy aiming to treat as many locust or grasshopper hotspots as possible before they damage crops, with treatments beginning early in outbreaks. (Michel Lecoq (2021))
Principal sulcus
The hind sulcus. The position of this sulcus divides the prozona and the metazona. (Pfadt 2002)
Pronotal crest
A crest or fan-like structure situated on the pronotum, which is the upper region of the first thoracic segment. (Richman et al 1993)
Pronotal disk
The central upper surface of the pronotum. (Richman et al 1993)
Pronotum
The front zone of the disk (dorsal surface) of the pronotum. This zone is separated from the metazona by the principal sulcus. (Pfadt 2002)
Prosternal spine
A spine located on the sternum of the thorax, between the bases of the front legs. This structure is characteristic of the spurthroated subfamily. (Pfadt 2002)
Prosternum
The ventral plate on the first segment of the thorax. (Richman et al 1993)
Prothorax
The front segment of the thorax. (Pfadt 2002)
Proximal
The part of an appendage which is closest to the body. (Brust et al. 2020)
Prozona
The front zone of the disk (dorsal surface) of the pronotum. This zone is separated from the metazona by the principal sulcus. (Pfadt 2002)
S
Salt lake
A lake containing inland mineral salts giving it a salinity equivalent to or higher than seawater.
Scattered
In reference to locusts, not located in swarms or bands. May be isolated or in small groups.
Scraper
A component of the stridulatory or sound-producing system in certain grasshoppers; the pointed anal angle on the forewing being scraped against the file to produce the stridulation sound. (Richman et al 1993)
Shoulder
The lateral angles of the metazona of the pronotum. (Brust et al. 2020)
Sibilant
A hissing sound. (Pfadt 2002)
Silent
Lacking any methods of sound production.
Solitarious behavior
Solitarious behavior in locusts describes the typical conduct of individual grasshoppers living alone or in small, scattered populations, exhibiting reduced mobility and a tendency to stay within limited areas without engaging in extensive migration. Their appearance is less vibrant, often blending in with their surroundings, and they lack the striking colors seen in gregarious locusts. Unlike their gregarious counterparts, solitarious locusts do not aggregate or form swarms; instead, they remain dispersed. (Pener and Simpson 2009~~ Uvarov 1921~~Uvarov 1966~~Pener 1991)
Sparring
A behavior in which individual grasshoppers strike out at one another with their forelegs or, occasionally, middle legs. (Otte 1970)
Spatulate
Round and broadened apically, spoon-shaped. (Brust et al. 2020)
Spine
A thornlike outgrowth of the integument which is not separated from it by a joint. (Brust et al. 2020)
Spiracle
The external opening of the tracheal system in an insect, used for breathing. (Richman et al 1993)
Spur
Protruding structure. A spinelike process of the integument connected by a joint. (Brust et al. 2020)
Spurious vein
A vein-like thickening in the wing membrane situated between two primary veins. (Richman et al 1993)
Stadium
The time period between two successive molts of larvae or nymphs. (Brust et al. 2020)
Sternite
A subdivision of a sternum. (Brust et al. 2020)
Sternum
The bottom of the thoractic segments. (Pfadt 2002)
Streaming
Locusts flying in large numbers with a common orientation.
Stridulate
Making a creaking or grating sound (by insects) through rubbing two rough surfaces against each other. (Brust et al. 2020)
Stridulation
Sound produced by rubbing one part of the body against another. (Vickery and Kevan 1985)
Styliform
Long and slender. (Brust et al. 2020)
Subdominant
The grasshopper species of lesser abundance than the dominant one in an assemblage of grasshopper species. (Pfadt 2002)
Subesophageal ganglion
Three fused ganglia located in the head below the digestive tract, innervating the mouthparts. (Brust et al. 2020)
Subgenital plate
In the male grasshopper, the terminal ventral plate underlying the genitalia. (Brust et al. 2020)
Sulcus
A groove or furrow in the integument. (Brust et al. 2020)
Supraanal plate
A triangular dorsal plate of the eleventh abdominal segment overlaying the anus. Also known as the epiproct. (Brust et al. 2020)
Suture
A linelike groove in the integument. (Brust et al. 2020)
Swamp
A forested wetland; which may contain freshwater, brackish water, or saltwater.
Swarm
An assemblage of winged locusts, showing or having shown sustained displacements as a whole and in large numbers.
R
Recession
Period without widespread and heavy infestations by swarms (Michel Lecoq (2021))
Regurgitation
The process by which grasshoppers defensively regurgitate a brown fluid when handled. (Otte 1970)
Relative density
With reference to grasshoppers, the number caught per certain number of sweeps with an insect net or caught by hand or seen in a given period of time. (Pfadt 2002)
Reproductive cycle
The succession of stages from one generation to the next, i.e. egg, nymph, imago, egg.
Riparian dwelling
Inhabiting areas of vegetation surrounding bodies of water.
Rugose
Wrinkled. (Brust et al. 2020)
U
Ulnar vein
The cubitus vein, located approximately in the middle of the wing. (Richman et al 1993)
Univoltine
Produces one brood per season. (Pfadt 2002)
Upsurge
An upsurge usually occurs when locusts are able to breed uncontrolled for several successive seasons. This causes the formation of further hopper bands and adult swarms. This generally affects an entire region. (FAO n.d.~~Michel Lecoq (2021))
Urban
T
Taiga
Coniferous forests with permafrost soils in arctic and subarctic regions of North America and Eurasia.
Tarsus
The segmented foot of an insect; three-segmented in the grasshopper. (Brust et al. 2020)
Tegmina
The front pair of wings on a grasshopper, which are leathery and narrow with nearly parallel sides. Synonymous to forewings. (Pfadt 2002)
Temperate coniferous forest
Forests made up of predominantly conifer trees in temperate climates.
Temperate deciduous forest
Forests made up of predominantly deciduous broadleaf trees in temperate climates.
Tergum
The dorsal (upper or back) portions of an arthropod's segmented body, excluding the head. (Pfadt 2002)
Terricole
Organism that is ground-dwelling. (Richman et al 1993)
Tessellate
Mosaic or checkered. (Brust et al. 2020)
Testaceous
Brownish yellow. (Brust et al. 2020)
Thorax
The center region of a grasshopper's body, located between the head and the abdomen. The thorax consists of three fused segments: the prothorax, the mesothorax, and the metathorax. (Pfadt 2002)
Tibia
The lower, slender segment of the grasshopper hindleg, which bears a row of spines on its posterior edges. (Pfadt 2002)
Tracheal system
The respiratory system of insects, which consists of internal airfilled tubes. (Brust et al. 2020)
Transitiform
A phase in locust development between the solitary and fully swarming (gregarious) phases (Uvarov 1966)
Transverse
Perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. (Richman et al 1993)
Transverse sulci
The furrows or grooves that run across the pronotum, the saddle-shaped structure located just behind the head (Pfadt 2002)
Trilobate
With three lobes. (Richman et al 1993)
Triquetrous
Having a triangular shape with three flat surfaces. (Richman et al 1993)
Trochanter
A small segment of the insect leg located between the coxa and the femur. (Brust et al. 2020)
Troglophile
A species that can be found in caves.
Tropical coniferous forest
Coniferous forests occurring at tropical or subtropical latitudes.
Tropical dry forest
Arid tropical or subtropical forests with broadleaf trees, many of which drop their leaves during the dry season.
Tropical rainforest
Humid tropical forests made up of predominantly broadleaf evergreen or deciduous trees.
Tubercle
A tiny, rounded or knob-shaped bump. (Richman et al 1993)
Two generations per year
Tympanum
The membrane which covers the auditory organ ("eardrum cover") of a grasshopper, which is located on the first segment of the abdomen. (Pfadt 2002)
W
Wetland
Wing pads
The developing wings found on nymphs. (Brust et al. 2020)
Wing veins
Sclerotized tubes which provide strength to the wings. (Pfadt 2002)
V
Vagility
Capacity to disperse. (Brust et al. 2020)
Vagrant
A species that has been recorded outside of its native range via natural dispersal but not established a breeding population.
Valve
One of the three pairs of processes that make up the sheath and piercing components of the ovipositor. (Richman et al 1993)
Venation
The entire system of veins of an insect wing. (Brust et al. 2020)
Ventral
Pertaining to the undersurface of the body. (Brust et al. 2020)
Vertex
The portion of the top of the head which lies between the compuond eyes. (Pfadt 2002)
Very early hatching
Hatching during early spring from March to mid-April.