Pallid-winged grasshopper (Trimerotropis pallidipennis)
| Trimerotropis pallidipennis | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Other common names | |
| Pallid winged grasshopper, pallidwinged grasshopper, desert grasshopper | |
| Taxonomic classification | |
| Suborder: | Caelifera |
| Family: | Acrididae |
| Subfamily: | Oedipodinae |
| Tribe: | Trimerotropini |
| Genus: | Trimerotropis |
| Scientific name | |
| Trimerotropis pallidipennis (Burmeister, 1838) | |
| Geography | |
| Native countries: | |
| Traits | |
| Diet: | Grasses and sedges, Forbs |
| Pest status | |
| Known pest | |
The pallid-winged grasshopper (Trimerotropis pallidipennis), is a widespread, highly mobile band-winged species inhabiting deserts, semideserts, dry grasslands, and other sparsely vegetated habitats from western Canada and the United States through Mexico and into South America. Its broad diet includes numerous grasses and forbs, while its strong flight ability enables extensive dispersal as vegetation dries and can bring adults into agricultural fields and urban areas. Populations usually remain low but may increase rapidly after periods of favorable precipitation, occasionally producing short-lived outbreaks that damage crops. Genetic studies indicate that this apparently widespread species contains several geographically distinct lineages, particularly in the Andes, highlighting unresolved taxonomic complexity and hidden evolutionary diversity.
Taxonomy
Although traditionally treated as a single species, genetic studies indicate that Trimerotropis pallidipennis comprises several geographically distinct lineages, particularly in the Peruvian Andes, where complex topography and Pleistocene climatic fluctuations likely promoted isolation and diversification. These findings highlight the species as a taxonomically challenging group and suggest that its broad range conceals substantial evolutionary diversity.[1][2] For full nomenclature and taxonomic details of this taxon, see Orthoptera Species File
Identification
The pallid-winged grasshopper belongs to the diverse band-winged grasshopper genus Trimerotropis, which includes at least 50 described species.[2] The genus contains many species with similar color patterns and physical features, making accurate identification difficult. Usually tan, gray, or gray-brown. The front wings typically have two wide, dark stripes and brown spots near the ends. The hind wings are pale, with a narrow dark stripe across the middle and clear tips. The area behind the head has a noticeable central ridge, and its lower edge is straight. The hind legs are black and yellow, with yellow lower legs, and the underside is pale. It is found mainly in deserts and dry, desert-like habitats.
This species may be mistaken for several Montana Trimerotropis species with distinct forewing bands, particularly the Geyser grasshopper (T. diversellus)[3][4] and Trimerotropis strenua.[5]
For more photos for identification from bugwood.org
Identification details
The pallid-winged grasshopper is a moderately sized tan or gray species found primarily in desert and semidesert habitats. There are two transverse dark bands on the tegmina that extend across their full width, along with numerous brown spots in the distal portion. The hindwing disk is white to pale yellow and marked by a relatively narrow but conspicuous median black band, while the apical region is transparent. The median carina of the pronotum is incised twice anteriorly, elevated on the prozona, and lower but distinct on the metazona. The ventral margin of the pronotal lobe is straight and lacks a tooth. The inner medial area of the hind femur is black with two yellow bars, the hind tibia is yellow, and the venter ranges from cream to pale yellow.[6][5][7]
See ARS species factsheet for images.
The nymphs can be identified by distinctive structural and color characteristics (Fig. 1–5 in ARS species factsheet). The head has prominent triangular foveolae. In the first and second instars, the carinae of the frontal costa are straight; in the third through fifth instars, they curve slightly inward at the level of the antennal sockets. In all instars, the carinae are joined by a bridge-like ridge near the antennal sockets.[6]
The pronotum bears a distinct median carina that is weakly incised twice in the first instar, becoming increasingly elevated and clearly incised in the second through fifth instars. Its disk is ridged on the prozona and smooth on the metazona, with the median carina elevated on the prozona but low on the metazona.[6]
Hindleg coloration changes with instar. In the first instar, the hindleg is predominantly black, except for the pale basal fourth of the outer femoral area; the inner medial area is black with a pale distal bar. The hind tibia is black with a pale basal annulus, and the tarsus is white except for the second segment and distal half of the final segment, which are black. In the second instar, the medial femoral area is pale tan, with two dark bars along the upper marginal area and three alternating black and pale-tan bars on the inner medial area; the hind tibia is black or pale tan. In the third through fifth instars, both femoral surfaces are pale tan with two or three black bars, and the hind tibia is yellow. Overall, the body is tan with brown spotting, and the venter is yellow to olive.[6]
Identification resources
| Title | Author(s) | Year | Geographic purview | URL |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| UofA School & Home Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Newsletter Newsletter Grasshoppers | University of Arizona,Dawn H. Gouge, Tom J. Getts, Tim W. Stock, John F. Connett and Micah Gay | 2023 | View URL | |
| A Manual of the Grasshoppers of New Mexico | New Mexico Cooperative Extension Service,D.B. Richman, D.C. Lightfoot, C.A. Sutherland and DJ. Ferguson | 1993 | View URL | |
| The grasshoppers and other orthoptera of Arizona | University of Arizona,E. Ball, E. R. Tinkham, Robert Flock and C. T. Vorhies | 1942 | View URL | |
| Orthoptera of Northern Great Plains | North Dakota State University | 2007 | ||
| The grasshoppers of Nebraska | Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service,Mathew L. Brust, Wyatt Hoback and Robert J. Wright | 2009 | View URL | |
| Field guide to grasshoppers of economic importance in Nevada | University of Nevada | View URL | ||
| Montana.gov Orthoptera Field Guides | View URL | |||
| Field Guide to Common Western Grasshoppers | United States Department of Agriculture,Robert E. Pfadt | 2002 | ||
| Grasshoppers of the Western United States | United States Department of Agriculture | View URL | ||
| ARS grasshopper species fact sheets | Agricultural Research Services and United States Department of Agriculture | 1994 | ||
| The Grasshoppers of the Western U.S. Lucid mobile app | APHIS PPQ Science & Technology Insect Management and Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory (Phoenix Station), United States Department of Agriculture and Center for Plant Health Science and Technology of the USDA | 2016 |
Distribution
Trimerotropis pallidipennis inhabits deserts in both North and South America.[8] It is a widespread dryland, ground-mimicking grasshopper that occurs in deserts and grasslands from Canada south to Patagonia, with gaps in its distribution across Central America. In North America it is highly mobile, with large numbers sometimes flying at night, and adults present during most months of the year. In western Argentina it is the most widespread species, occupying an even broader range of habitats than in North America, from high mountain grasslands above 11,000 feet down to low-elevation arid salt flats and throughout the Monte, from the Bolivian highlands deep into Patagonia.[9]
T. pallidipennis is one of the most common grasshoppers in the Lower and Upper Sonoran zones of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, found at elevations up to about 8,500 feet, especially on rocky ridges.[5][10]
Ecology
Their habitats are characterized by shrubs, forbs, and grasses interspersed with abundant bare ground that the grasshoppers use for basking and resting. Beyond their typical rangeland settings, pallid-winged grasshoppers can also thrive in weedy vacant lots in urban areas.[6]
Diet / Feeding ecology
The pallid-winged grasshopper feeds on a range of grasses and forbs, with its daily diet determined by the availability and quality of plants in its habitat. After hatching in early spring, it feeds mainly on lush annual grasses such as downy brome and needle grama (Bouteloua aristidoides). As these grasses dry later in spring, the grasshoppers shift to green perennial grasses and selected forbs.[6]
Host plants / Host species
T. pallidipennis is a highly polyphagous, desert-dwelling species that spends most of its time on or near the ground. Its diet includes a broad range of grasses and forbs and varies among regions and habitat types.[9] Downy brome was prominent in Idaho, forbs predominated in southwestern Texas, and needle grama was most common in Sonoran Desert specimens. Despite their broad diet, feeding trials indicate clear preferences for several plants, including dandelion, kochia, downy brome, crested wheatgrass, and needle-and-thread.[11][12] referenced in [6]
The pallid-winged grasshopper is a desert grasshopper that avoids extreme heat by resting in shaded microhabitats beneath shrubs during the day. Thermal constraints strongly shape both the species’ antipredator behavior and its use of microhabitats. It can tolerate very high body temperatures, up to about 50 C, but normally keeps its body temperature below 46 to 48 C by behavioral thermoregulation.[13] It can also endure drought.[9]
When disturbed, it escapes by jumping or making short flights into open ground and then remaining motionless, relying on crypsis.[13] This immobile phase is brief because ground-level temperatures in open desert habitat can exceed the insect’s thermal tolerance by 10 to 20 C or more. The species maximizes survival during these escape periods by stilting, holding the body above the hot ground on extended legs, and sometimes by perching on small rocks or orienting toward the sun.[13]
The escape strategy is effective against ground-foraging lizards such as Cnemidophorus tigris and Sceloporus magister, which usually do not pursue grasshoppers beyond shrub shade. It is less effective against birds such as Say’s phoebe, which can wait for the grasshopper to move and then capture it.[13]
The pallid-winged grasshopper is a powerful flier capable of extensive dispersal, particularly as desert vegetation dries and local habitat conditions decline.[14] Although there are no detailed studies of pallid-winged grasshopper flight patterns, available evidence indicates considerable mobility.[6] Adults can sustain flight for more than 15 minutes, and aircraft pilots have reported observing swarms at altitudes of 3,000–5,000 feet.[15] Small scale, mark and recapture studies show that many individuals leave their original local area, and field observations of prolonged, high-altitude flights suggest that the species can disperse over long distances. Its occurrence in Hawaii in the late 1960s was likely the result of wind-assisted transport from western North America.[6]
Reproduction / Life history
The pallid-winged grasshopper breeds in areas with shallow soil and sparse vegetation.[5] It hatches early in spring from eggs that overwinter in the soil. In south-central Arizona, hatching begins in late February and continues through March. In west-central Utah, southeastern Colorado, and eastern Wyoming populations generally hatch in late April. South-central Arizona may support a second generation, with eggs beginning to hatch in early June; northern Arizona and more northern states, including Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, produce only one generation annually.[6]
Eggs normally appear to enter diapause a few days after being laid. However, under moist insectary conditions in a silt-and-sand substrate at Mesa, Arizona, eggs hatched without diapause after 13–21 days of incubation, averaging 15.5 days at air temperatures of 82–104°F.[16][6]
Nymphs emerge early in spring, when weather conditions may be variable but food plants are typically green, abundant, and nutritious. Their development generally takes 42–48 days. In southern Arizona, nymphs develop mainly during March and April, whereas development occurs during May and June in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. A second generation develops in southern Arizona during June, and additional generations may occur later in the season when moisture conditions are favorable.[6]
In a Mesa, Arizona, insectary study, females completed either five or six instars, while males usually completed five, although some had six. At lower laboratory temperatures of 70–84°F (mean 77°F), grasshoppers with five instars averaged 50 days to complete nymphal development, compared with 60 days for six-instar females. Under warmer midsummer insectary conditions of 81–101°F (mean 91°F), development averaged 31 days for males and 33 days for females.[16][6]
Observations conducted at Mesa, Arizona, from February 1960 to December 1961 showed that adult longevity averaged 52.9 days, with a maximum of 138 days.[16] Males make frequent short flights that produce crepitation, or snapping sounds from the hindwings, which appears to initiate pair formation. After landing near a female, the male approaches on foot and produces a series of trilling stridulations during courtship. If receptive, the female remains still while the male mounts and mates. Female reproductive development appears to depend on habitat conditions: females in lush Arizona vegetation developed mature eggs within a week of adult emergence, whereas females in dry desert habitat lacked developed eggs.[17][6]
Females produced an average of 225 eggs, with a maximum of 955 eggs laid in 27 pods by a single individual. Egg incubation during July and August averaged 15.5 days. The nymphal period averaged 53.5 days in late winter and early spring, decreasing to 32.2 days under high summer temperatures. These data suggest that a generation can be completed in approximately 3 to 3.5 months during summer conditions.[16]
Pallid-winged grasshoppers are relatively large rangeland insects whose weight varies with habitat conditions. In the Sonoran Desert near Phoenix, males averaged 268 mg and females 565 mg, compared with 175 mg and 429 mg, respectively, in Colorado sagebrush habitat. Near Mesa, Arizona, young males averaged 261 mg live weight and immature females 399 mg.[6]
Featured resources
Management
Pallid-winged grasshopper outbreaks are sporadic and usually short-lived but can cause substantial crop damage when populations move from desert rangelands into cultivated fields. Management relies primarily on insecticides, increasingly using reduced-area treatments that lower chemical use while retaining effective control. Experience in Arizona shows that treating surrounding rangelands, as well as crops, is essential to prevent another upsurge.
Pest status
Pallid-winged grasshopper outbreaks occur irregularly across the deserts of western North America and are often short-lived, typically lasting one year and rarely more than two. In Arizona, outbreaks have been associated with unusually abundant, well-distributed precipitation from fall through early spring, which promotes favorable egg-survival conditions and abundant, nutritious vegetation. Although local population growth has not been closely monitored, favorable weather and the species’ high reproductive capacity appear to enable rapid increases in abundance. Populations generally decline after outbreaks, as urban swarms lack food and crop-invading grasshoppers are controlled, leaving the species scarce for roughly three to four years between irruptions.[6]
Outbreaks
The most severe and widespread infestations occurred in 1941 and 1958, primarily on non-irrigated desert land in south-central Arizona following winters and springs with consistently above-average precipitation and unusually favorable desert vegetation conditions. The 1958 outbreak was the most intense recorded in more than two decades, with the highest populations concentrated in Maricopa and Pinal Counties.[17] Hatching of the spring generation occurred mainly on desert rangeland, after which T. pallidipennis frequently dispersed into adjacent cultivated areas, damaging agriculturally important crops like vegetables, alfalfa, milo, barley, cotton, and corn.[5][17]
Substantial losses, particularly to seedling cotton in Maricopa and Pinal Counties, have spurred control measures.[17]
In small-grain fields, densities of 25–50 adult grasshoppers per square yard caused wheat defoliation and severed grain heads. Cotton fields supported 5–10 grasshoppers per square yard, where they consumed seedlings down to the ground, forcing growers to replant extensive areas, sometimes twice when infestations continued. In Arizona during 1958, damage also occurred in carrots, sugarbeets, barley, milo, and corn. California outbreaks likewise affected safflower and grapes, in addition to cotton, sugarbeets, barley, and corn.[6]
Between 1952 and 1980, Arizona experienced six pallid-winged grasshopper outbreaks. These events were short-lived: one persisted for two years, whereas the other five lasted only a single year. Comparable brief outbreaks have also been reported in the desert regions of New Mexico, Utah, and California.[6]
An outbreak occurred in west-central Arizona in 1998. On the night of April 19, swarms drawn to urban lights settled across an approximately 50-mile corridor from Lake Havasu City to Bullhead City. Grasshoppers crushed by traffic on streets and highways created slippery conditions that caused cars and trucks to skid. Around buildings, their accumulations reached depths of about 2 inches.[6]
In 2026, pallid-winged grasshopper populations surged in Arizona, with outbreak levels not seen for many years (Samuel Killday, Plant Health Safeguarding Specialist, USDA APHIS PPQ, personal communication to Mira Ries, GLI Project Coordinator, 30 Jun. 2026).
Outbreak media coverage
Management methods
The main strategy for managing grasshopper outbreaks on rangelands in the United States involves the use of insecticides applied via all-terrain vehicle (ATV)-mounted or aerial sprayers. Recommended insecticides include diflubenzuron, malathion, chlorantraniliprole, various pyrethroids, and carbaryl. Applications are made either through full-area coverage or using a method known as Reduced Agent and Area Treatments (RAATs). RAATs are an integrated pest management (IPM) technique where insecticide rates are lowered from standard levels, and treated swaths are alternated with untreated ones, reducing total coverage to 50% or less. This method combines direct chemical control (killing grasshoppers in treated areas and as they migrate from untreated zones) with conservation biological control, allowing natural enemies in untreated areas to help suppress the population. This IPM strategy can cut both insecticide use and treatment costs by more than half. Control efforts typically achieve around 80% effectiveness, which is adequate to suppress most grasshopper populations. The insect growth regulator diflubenzuron has shown particular success in RAAT applications due to its long-lasting residual toxicity, which persists for about three weeks.[18][19][20]
From 1937 to 1953, T. pallidipennis, like most grasshopper species,is susceptible to a range of insecticides applied as sprays, dusts, or baits. However, efforts to control migrating nymphs and adults in seedling cotton during spring 1958 were only partly effective, as continual influx from adjacent desert areas offset field treatments. This demonstrated that effective management required control on desert rangeland to prevent reinvasion. In May 1958, a cooperative program treated about 138,000 acres of desert land in south-central Arizona using aerial applications of aldrin in diesel fuel to reduce source populations near cultivated fields.[17]
Land-use change
Organizations associated with the pallid-winged grasshopper
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Projects
Resources
| Title | Author(s) | Year | Geographic purview | URL |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| UofA School & Home Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Newsletter Newsletter Grasshoppers | University of Arizona,Dawn H. Gouge, Tom J. Getts, Tim W. Stock, John F. Connett and Micah Gay | 2023 | View URL | |
| A Manual of the Grasshoppers of New Mexico | New Mexico Cooperative Extension Service,D.B. Richman, D.C. Lightfoot, C.A. Sutherland and DJ. Ferguson | 1993 | View URL | |
| The grasshoppers and other orthoptera of Arizona | University of Arizona,E. Ball, E. R. Tinkham, Robert Flock and C. T. Vorhies | 1942 | View URL | |
| Orthoptera of Northern Great Plains | North Dakota State University | 2007 | ||
| The grasshoppers of Nebraska | Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service,Mathew L. Brust, Wyatt Hoback and Robert J. Wright | 2009 | View URL | |
| Field guide to grasshoppers of economic importance in Nevada | University of Nevada | View URL | ||
| Montana.gov Orthoptera Field Guides | View URL | |||
| Field Guide to Common Western Grasshoppers | United States Department of Agriculture,Robert E. Pfadt | 2002 | ||
| Grasshoppers of the Western United States | United States Department of Agriculture | View URL | ||
| ARS grasshopper species fact sheets | Agricultural Research Services and United States Department of Agriculture | 1994 | ||
| The Grasshoppers of the Western U.S. Lucid mobile app | APHIS PPQ Science & Technology Insect Management and Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory (Phoenix Station), United States Department of Agriculture and Center for Plant Health Science and Technology of the USDA | 2016 |
References
- ↑ Husemann M, Guzmán NV, Danley PD, Cigliano MM, Confalonieri VA (2013) Biogeography of Trimerotropis pallidipennis (Acrididae: Oedipodinae): deep divergence across the Americas. Journal of Biogeography 40(2): 261–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12007
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Guzmán NV, Pietrokovsky SM, Cigliano MM, Confalonieri VA (2017) Unraveling the diversification history of grasshoppers belonging to the “Trimerotropis pallidipennis” (Oedipodinae: Acrididae) species group: a hotspot of biodiversity in the Central Andes. PeerJ 5: e3835. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3835
- ↑ Scott, RD (2010) Montana Grasshoppers, Katydids, and Crickets A Pictorial Field Guide to the Orthoptera. MagpieMTGraphics, Billings, MT.
- ↑ Montana Field Guide (n.d.) Pallid-winged grasshopper—Trimerotropis pallidipennis. Montana Field Guide. https://fieldguide.mt.gov/speciesDetail.aspx?elcode=IIORT36330 (accessed 4 Sep. 2026).
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Ball ED, Tinkham ER, Flock R, Vorhies CT (1942) The grasshoppers and other Orthoptera of Arizona. Technical Bulletin 93. College of Agriculture, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, pp. 275–373. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/190516
- ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 Pfadt RE (2002) Pallid-winged grasshopper (Trimerotropis pallidipennis). Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 912. Species Fact Sheet. https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/30320505/grasshopper/Extras/PDFs/Species%20Fact%20Sheets/Pallidwg.pdf
- ↑ Centre for Overseas Pest Research (1982) The locust and grasshopper agricultural manual. Centre for Overseas Pest Research, London, 690 pp. ISBN 978-0-85135-120-9.
- ↑ Otte D (1984) The North American grasshoppers. Volume II: Acrididae: Oedipodinae. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 366 pp.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Otte D, Joern A (1976) On feeding patterns in desert grasshoppers and the evolution of specialized diets. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 128: 89–126.
- ↑ Palka-Flores E (2024) Grasshopper diversity and community ecology in the Madrean Sky Islands of Arizona. MSc thesis, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses 31638505.
- ↑ Otte D, Joern A (1977) On feeding patterns in desert grasshoppers and the evolution of specialized diets. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 128: 89–126.
- ↑ Scoggan AC, Brusven MA (1972) Differentiation and ecology of common immature Gomphocerinae and Oedipodinae (Orthoptera: Acrididae) of Idaho and adjacent areas. Melanderia 8: 1–76.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Chappell MA (1983) Thermal limitations to escape response in desert grasshoppers. Animal Behaviour 31: 1088–1093.
- ↑ Joern A (1983) Small-scale displacements of grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) within arid grasslands. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 56: 131–139.
- ↑ Gouge DH, Getts TJ, Stock TW, Connett JF, Gay M (2023) Grasshoppers. School & Home Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Newsletter, June 2023. University of Arizona, Cooperative Extension University of California, Oregon State University, and University of Wyoming. https://acis.cals.arizona.edu/docs/default-source/community-ipm-documents/newsletters/jun2023-azhomeschoolipm-newslter_grasshoppers_vf-for-posting.pdf?sfvrsn=29322ba1_0
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Barnes OL (1963) Observations on the life history of the desert grasshopper (Trimerotropis pallidipennis pallidipennis) in laboratory and insectary cages. Journal of Economic Entomology 56: 525–528.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Barnes OL (1960) Observations on the desert grasshopper, Trimerotropis pallidipennis pallidipennis, in Arizona. Journal of Economic Entomology 53: 721–724.
- ↑ Latchininsky A (2019) In: Lecoq M, Zhang L (Eds) Encyclopedia of pest Orthoptera of the world. China Agricultural University Press, Beijing, China, pp. 9, 23, 53, 136, 141, 145, 151.
- ↑ Latchininsky AV, Schell SP (2007) Aerial RAATs brochure. ATV-RAATs brochure. UW CES Bulletin MP-95, Laramie, WY, USA.https://hopperwiki.org/index.php/UWYO_information_on_reduced_agent_and_area_treatments_(RAATs)
- ↑ Lockwood JA, Schell SP (1997) Decreasing economic and environmental costs through reduced area and agent insecticide treatments (RAATs) for the control of rangeland grasshoppers: empirical results and their implications for pest management. Journal of Orthoptera Research 6: 19–32.