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Migratory locust (Locusta migratoria)

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Locusta migratoria
Other common names
Treksprinkaan (Af), Criquet migrateur (Fr), Wanderheuschrecke (Ge), Valala vao (Mg), Перелетная саранча (Ru)
Taxonomic classification
Suborder:Caelifera
 
Family:Acrididae
 
Subfamily:Oedipodinae
 
Tribe:Locustini
 
Genus:Locusta
 
Scientific name
Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Geography
Native countries:
 
Traits
Diet:Grasses and sedges, Forbs
 
Pest status
Known pest
Sound

Listen to this species on xeno-canto

The migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) is a notorious agricultural pest and the most widely distributed grasshopper species in the world. It is present across the entire temperate and the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere. In China, records of the migratory locust plagues go back to 200 BC. Today, it is the most important locust pest after the desert locust.

Taxonomy

Historically, numerous subspecies of Locusta migratoria were recognized according to their geographic distribution.[1] However, phylogeographic analysis shows only two true subspecies: the Asian (or Asiatic) migratory locust L. migratoria migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758) and the African migratory locust, L. migratoria migratorioides (Reiche and Fairmaire, 1849).[2]

This recent genetic evidence indicates that migratory locusts fall into two divergent lineages shaped by long-term geographic isolation, with about 87% of the total molecular variation occurring between these two groups. Many named forms such as L. m. capito, L. m. manilensis, L. m. tibetensis, L. m. burmana, and the Indian, Australian, and Arabian subspecies appear to be regional variants of the African migratory locust, whereas L. m. gallica, L. m. remaudierei, L. m. cinerascens, and L. m. rossica are regional variants of the Asian migratory locust. As a result, the validity of these traditional subspecies requires renewed taxonomic scrutiny before they can be retained.[2] For full nomenclature and taxonomic details of this taxon, see Orthoptera Species File

Subspecies


Identification

The migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) is part of the subfamily Cyrtacanthacridinae which contains many of the world’s most notorious locusts. These grasshoppers are typically large-bodied, strong fliers, and capable of forming swarms under favorable environmental conditions. Their ability to switch between solitary and gregarious phases, known as phase polyphenism, underlies their capacity for sudden population outbreaks. Important locust species include the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), the red locust (Nomadacris septemfasciata), the South American locust (Schistocerca cancellata), the Central American locust (Schistocerca piceifrons), the Bombay locust (Patanga succincta), the the Sahelian tree locust (Anacridium melanorhodon), and the brown locust (Locustana pardalina). Many of these species are adapted to arid and grassland environments across Africa, Asia, and Australia, where periodic rainfall can trigger rapid breeding and swarm development.[3]

Morphologically, Cyrtacanthacridinae species are distinguished by the presence of a prosternal spine and robust hind femora adapted for jumping. Wing coloration, often featuring bright hindwings with yellow, red, or rose tones, serves as a key diagnostic feature.

Identification details

The migratory locust displays striking differences in appearance between its gregarious and solitarious phases, observable throughout its life stages. Gregarious nymphs are recognized by their orange and black coloration in the later instars. They feature a distinctive dark stripe running from the antenna through the eye at a 45-degree angle, leveling horizontally before fading into the thorax, which bears a small yet prominent dark spot. Their rear femora exhibit two oblique dark bands. Gregarious adults have a bluish body combined with a yellow head and legs. Their folded forewings are dark, marked with thin light streaks, while the hindwings are clear, smoky towards the apex, and have distinct black anal veins. The overall coloration of gregarious forms is yellow to orange or reddish-brown with characteristic black spots interspersed with some white.[4][5][1]

In contrast, solitarious nymphs are mostly green or brown, though the first instar is gray. They also present a dark stripe from antenna through eye, which becomes horizontal and fades into the thorax, forming a small dark spot, along with two oblique dark bands on the rear femora. Their coloration shifts seasonally, with about 80 percent being green during the rainy season and only 20 percent during the dry season. Solitarious adults are generally brown or green, sometimes yellowish-green or gray, and may become blackish when exposed to burnt environments. They exhibit dark brown or black spotting, especially on the pronotum. Both nymphs and adults in the solitarious phase exhibit these subtle but significant color patterns. Folded forewings of adults are dark with thin light markings; hindwings are transparent, slightly yellowish at the base, smoky at the apex, and show distinct black anal veins.[4][5][1]

It can be distinguished from Gastrimargus species, which possess a broad, continuous dark band on the hindwing.[5]

Unique features: Dark mouth, hairy underside of thorax. Its large size, clear rear wing, and raised thorax profile distinguish it from the Australian plague locust. Clear rear wing, lighter tibia, strongly marked forewings (compared to mottled), and flatter thorax profile, distinguish it from similar yellow-winged locust.[6]

Compare photos

Identification resources

Title Author(s) Year Geographic purview URL
Migratory locust info poster FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2024 View URL
How to identify locusts 2021 View URL
Managing locusts in Queensland 2022 View URL
Michel Lecoq entomology website Michel Lecoq 2014 View URL
Practical guidelines on the three locust pests in Caucasus and Central Asia FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2019
FAO locust handbook identification key FAO Desert Locust Information Service and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations View URL
Australian plague locust online learning module 2022 View URL
Agriculture Victoria Australian plague locust identification, biology and behaviour 2022 View URL
Locust identification in Niger Global Locust Initiative, United States Agency for International Development, Directorate of Plant Protection, United Nations AGRHYMET Regional Center, Le Centre National de Lutte Antiacridienne and National Network of Agriculture Chambers of Niger 2022 View URL
CIRAD pest locust website The French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development View URL
APLC locust and grasshopper identification guide Australian Plague Locust Commission
Locusts of Australia Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 2020 View URL


Distribution

The migratory locust has the largest global distribution of all locusts and grasshoppers. It is present in all temperate and tropical regions of the Eastern hemisphere including Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. The southern edge of the coniferous forest of Eurasia marks its northern limit and it extends as far as South as New Zealand. It can be found from the Azores in the West to Fiji in the East.[1]

The Eurasian populations are the Asian migratory locust, L. m. migratoria, and the tropical populations in Africa, Asia, and Australia are the African migratory locust, L. m. migratorioides.[2]

For more details see the habitat and ecology section as well as distribution records on [GBIF]

Biology

The migratory locust is typically univoltine, though up to five generations per year can occur in tropical zones under ideal conditions, reproducing continuously without any reproductive or egg diapause.[7][8][9][1]

Female migratory locust

In the Caucasus and Central Asia, L. m. migratoria egg-laying happens in August–September, with eggs surviving the winter. Each female produces 1–3 egg pods (up to 5 in warmer areas), with 60–80 eggs per pod (ranging from 40 to 120). The egg pods are large, slightly curved, 50–85 mm long and 7–10 mm in diameter, with eggs measuring 7–8 mm. Light sandy soils are preferred for oviposition. Hatching occurs from early May to early June, usually completed within 4–5 days. There are five hopper instars, with hopper development lasting 35–40 days (about 7–8 days per instar). Adults emerge from June to early July, persisting until November in the warmest areas. Mating begins 2–4 weeks after fledging, with females laying eggs 2–3 weeks later, typically at the end of July.[4]

In Africa, L. m. migratorioides typically produces four to five generations annually in the Middle Niger region, but the number varies elsewhere: two generations in Sudan, three in the Lake Chad area and Cameroon, and two in most other parts of tropical West and East Africa. Resident populations in southern Tanzania and Zimbabwe, as well as in South Africa, generally have two generations per year, with some evidence of partial egg diapause in South Africa. The egg stage lasts 9–35 days in the Middle Niger, and hopper development takes 24–35 days, usually through five instars but occasionally six. Laboratory studies show longer development times under dry conditions. In South Africa, the egg stage lasts 14–28 days and the hopper stage 8–10 weeks, with five instars. Egg and clutch sizes vary, and there is a diagnostic difference between solitarious and gregarious phases in ovariole number and clutch size.[1]

In Australia, L. m. migratorioides typically lays eggs after rain, but can oviposit even as vegetation dries, though its eggs do not survive long in dry conditions. In central Queensland, eggs rarely enter diapause due to high winter temperatures, and survival is poor unless regular rain occurs. Females lay 3–5 egg pods, each with 50–60 eggs, in moist, cultivated soils, creek beds, or silted sorghum fields. Egg development takes 11–15 days, and nymphs undergo 5–6 molts over about 30 days, though this is slower in cold or dry weather. Large nymph groups become gregarious, forming dense bands that march up to 500 m/day. Adults live about two months, mature sexually in two weeks, and females lay a pod every 4–6 days, allowing for up to five or six overlapping generations annually. Swarms can migrate long distances but less frequently than the Australian plague locust.[10]

In general, the migratory locust exhibits phase polyphenism and is capable of long-distance migration.[11][12][13] Gregarization is a slower process for the migratory locust relative to the desert locust. After 64 hours of crowding these locusts are only partially gregarized.[14][15] [16] In low densities, solitary individuals remain dispersed and harmless, while increased density, estimated at around 2,000 adults per hectare, triggers transformation to the gregarious phase. Gregarious individuals congregate, multiply, and form hopper bands, eventually producing adult swarms that are capable of initiating multi-year plague cycles. These swarms are typically low-flying and expansive, sometimes casting visible shadows over several square kilometers, and can fly long distances, including overseas. While solitary locusts migrate and fly at night, swarming migrations mainly occur during daylight hours.​[5][1]

Habitat and ecology

Migratory locusts are primarily graminivorous but will consume a wide variety of plants from many families. They show strong preferences for certain grass species, such as Pennisetum, Panicum, and Sorghum, but the availability of favored grasses can limit feeding habits. Some grasses are avoided due to aromatic oils or tough foliage.[1]

Persistent breeding populations of migratory locusts are typically limited to grasslands with light sandy soils located near sources of standing water, such as lakes, marshes, and riverine deltas that are bordered by tall grasses. These locusts deliberately avoid forests of any type, as well as dry waterless deserts, which are unsuitable for their breeding requirements.[5]

Both subspecies are common in areas of periodic flooding such as river deltas, coastal plains, and along lakes where they breed in wet grassland areas on light soils. Asian migratory locusts prefer grasses such as Panicum species, Phragmites communis, Artemisia species, and Polygonum.[17][18][19] The African migratory locust favors area of 10–15% bare ground and Ctenium elegans, Cenchrus biflorus, and Eragrostis tremula grasses.[19] In many regions, land subjected to shifting cultivation, used for a few years then abandoned, provides ideal food and shelter conditions that encourage locusts to transition into their gregarious phase.[17][18][19] Wet seasons (or years) following dry seasons can lead to population build up and the aggregation of locusts on drying soil or grasses. This mosaic of patchy vegetation has been attributed to the onset of gregarization.[18]

Permanent habitat areas of L. m. migratoria occur in the Russian Federation and in Central Asia countries with specific breeding hot spots in Balkhash-Alakol lakes, Amu Darya river and, more recently Northern Caspian and Dagestan regions.[4]

The primary breeding areas for migratory locusts in China include lake shores, coastal zones, river floodplains, and waterlogged regions, with the Huang-Huai water system playing a central role in shaping these habitats, especially due to changes like the Yellow River’s diversion. Historical data show that most locust plagues occurred in the Yellow River basin, followed by the Yangtze River basin.[20]

In Africa, the most significant breeding populations of L. m. migratorioides occur in the Middle Niger flood plains, where conditions allow four to five generations per year, each occupying a distinct habitat. Other stable populations exist in eastern Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia, though these have never led to widespread plagues. Smaller populations are scattered throughout African grasslands and occasionally found in crops, with seasonal movements sometimes suspected.[1][21]

The subspecies L. m. migratorioides in Australia is also present in Indonesia, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea. Swarming populations are mainly found in central Queensland, with persistent distribution shown on maps, but intermittent populations can occur across northern Australia and into northern New South Wales. Low-density populations of this subspecies are common in coastal and subcoastal regions of Queensland and northern New South Wales.[10]

Land-use change

Historically, the migratory locust was not present in the drylands of the Sahara Desert however, agricultural expansion and human induced vegetation changes, particularly through the introduction of irrigation, has made for a more hospitable habitat and increased populations in this area.[22][23] Population upsurges have been seen in new areas due to rapid agricultural development of expansive cereal summer crops. In the Sahel, shifting agricultural land has left plots abandoned with bare areas that still support millet, sorghum, and Cenchrus biflorus which are favored host plants.[19]

In Australia, the expansion of suitable locust habitat due to land clearing and summer cropping in central Queensland has greatly increased the risk of outbreaks.[24]

Pest status

Migratory locust swarm in Madagascar April 2014 seen from the ground. Photo by FAO.

Outbreak areas are scattered globally, with population buildups in regions such as Mali, Madagascar, China, Australia, the Philippines, and in Russia, Kazhakhstan, and Uzbekistan, occasionally leading to plagues of continental importance. Water availability, through rainfall or flooding, is the main factor driving population dynamics and outbreak events.​[5]

Population upsurges in Australia are more recent, starting in 1973, when an important outbreak occurred in the Central Highlands district of Queensland. Before then it was an uncommon species of the coastal and subcoastal region with a few scattered records from inland.[25]

Agricultural damages usually concern cereals like barley, millet, corn, maize, oats, rice, sugar cane, teff grass, wheat, also bamboo and sugar cane. Other plants are consumed when grasses are not available, like banana, pineapple leaves, and palms.[1]

Management

Management of the migratory locust relies on preventive monitoring, coordinated regional response, and a mix of biological, cultural, and chemical control tools. At the global and regional level, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations' Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia (CCA) monitors three main species, including the migratory locust, across ten countries from Armenia to Uzbekistan, with the aim of reducing outbreak frequency and intensity, safeguarding crops and rangelands, and minimizing negative health and environmental impacts of control operations. The programme strengthens national survey and control capacity, issues regular regional bulletins, and promotes cross‑border cooperation so that early warning, forecasting, and targeted treatments can be organized before populations reach plague levels.[26]

Since the early 2000s, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Afghanistan have reported high infestation levels and conduct large annual anti‑locust campaigns, sometimes treating hundreds of thousands of hectares in a single season. To manage this transboundary threat, the FAO CCA coordinates joint surveys, data systems, and harmonized control operations across borders.[27]

Australian management of migratory locusts is led by state government agencies and the Australian Plague Locust Commission when outbreaks span multiple states. In Central and Southern Africa, the International Red Locust Control Organization for Central and Southern Africa (IRLCO‑CSA) plays a similar coordinating role, focusing on surveillance of key outbreak areas and organizing joint control campaigns.[28]

The International African Migratory Locust Organisation (OICMA), established in 1955 and based in Mali, was created to coordinate surveillance and control of African migratory locust outbreaks. It was disbanded in the 1980s due to financial difficulties and a significant decline in the importance of the Mali outbreak region, resulting from environmental changes. The field research conducted by OICMA in the 1950s and 1960s built upon important investigations into the gregarization process of the African migratory locust in the Niger River floodplain, detailing their movements and population dynamics.[29]

Chemical control is the most common tool for treating outbreaks, with ultra-low volume insecticide applications for rapid locust reduction. Early warning systems and regular field monitoring play critical roles in timely control and minimizing environmental impact by guiding pesticide use and control efforts.[5]

Outbreaks

Migratory locust swarm in Madagascar April 2014. Photo by FAO.

Major outbreaks of the migratory locust have occurred across Africa, Asia, and Europe for centuries, often following periods of favorable environmental conditions such as heavy rains and abundant vegetation. The Asian migratory locust is a key agricultural pest in the Caucasus and Central Asia, where it is one of three major locust species targeted by regional control programmes (alongside Italian and Moroccan locusts).[4] In Pakistan and India, swarms of L. m. migratoria in 2019-2020 caused extensive crop losses and prompted large-scale control efforts involving both traditional and chemical methods.[30]

Annual outbreaks of migratory locusts have been recorded in China for more than a thousand years.[31] Both subspecies of L. migratoria are commonly found in China[32] but L. m. manilensis the dominates the productive southeastern regions.[33] The Huang Ho and Huai Ho regions were historically the main centers of locust outbreaks in China, with detailed records from 1907 to 1956 and a notable outbreak in 1959. After 1960, insecticide use and wetland management significantly reduced locust populations, but outbreaks resurged from the 1990s due to increased droughts and warmer winters. A minor outbreak occurred in the Huang Ho region in 1994, followed by major outbreaks in several northern provinces in 1998.​[34]

The last major plague of L. m. migratorioides populations in Africa began in 1928 in the Niger floodplain, spreading swarms to Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa by 1931–1932. Swarms migrated rapidly, covering up to 240 km per day, but most dispersed without breeding. A new influx in 1933–1934 produced only limited hopper bands in South Africa, with populations dying out by 1934. Breeding continued in regions north of South Africa until 1941.[1][9] After the major plague invasions of the early 1930s, L. m. migratorioides populations in South Africa caused only occasional, minor damage to wheat. From 1960 onward, swarming activity became more frequent. In the winter of 1969–1970, a widespread infestation occurred in the Free State. These bands and small swarms caused extensive damage to winter wheat, prompting a vigorous control campaign by the Department of Agriculture. Over 4,000 hopper bands and nearly 100 adult swarms were controlled using about 50 tons of the organochlorine insecticide, benzene hexachloride (BHC), applied by motorized sprayers.[35][36] in [9]

The 1980 outbreak of L. m. migratorioides was a major event that nearly reached plague levels. It began in the maize-growing regions of South Africa and spread across 27 districts, extending into southern Botswana. Thousands of hopper bands and hundreds of small swarms formed. By early May, these groups consolidated into large, cohesive swarms (some exceeding 50 hectares) that flew actively during the day and roosted densely at night. Control efforts were extensive, involving 71 ground teams applying BHC dust from backpacks and vehicles, and the infestation was suppressed only with great difficulty.[37] in [9]

From 1984 to 1994, African migratory locust outbreaks recurred almost every year in a limited set of north‑west Free State and adjacent North West districts, with occasional larger events in Limpopo, North West, Northern Cape, and Western Cape cereal areas. A major episode in April–May 1993 required aerial and ground spraying over more than 10,000 ha, but since 2000 outbreaks have been sporadic and low intensity.[9]

In January 2017, Zambia faced outbreaks of both the African migratory locust and the red locust (Nomadacris septemfasciata), which together damaged over 10,000 hectares of grassland and cropland.[32] By February 2017, the director of the IRLCO-CSA stated that US$4 million would be needed to effectively address the outbreak.[38]

In 2020, Southern African countries launched an emergency response to outbreaks of the African migratory locust which, according to the FAO, threatened the food security and livelihoods of millions of people in Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.[39]

Migratory locust swarm in Madagascar April 2014 seen from helicopter. Photo by the FAO.

Migratory locusts have caused several large plagues in Madagascar, with major events in the mid‑20th century and again from the 1990s onward. Locusta migratoria capito was once thought of, and still often referred to, as a Malagasy subspecies of migratory locust, however, it is actually a regional variant of L. m. migratorioides.[2] In Madagascar, the African migratory locust can build up in the island’s semi‑arid southwest and then spread north and east across large parts of the country. In April 2012 a plague began and grew to threaten 13 million people’s food and livelihoods, especially in the southwest where poverty is high. Cyclone Haruna and prior droughts created ideal breeding conditions, raising the risk that swarms could infest about 1.5 million hectares across two thirds of the country and severely damage key rice‑growing areas. The government declared a national disaster in November 2012 and requested FAO support for a three‑year emergency control programme.[40]

View photos of the outbreak here.

In 2021, an outbreak of African migratory locusts infested more than 48,000 hectares of land in the Grand Sud, Madagascar.[41]

In Australia, outbreaks of the migratory locust are rare and mainly limited to central Queensland. Early infestations are poorly documented, but a significant outbreak occurred during the wet years from 1973 to 1976, causing severe crop damage in Queensland and northern New South Wales. The expansion of suitable habitat due to land clearing and summer cropping in central Queensland greatly increased the risk of outbreaks. Since then, smaller outbreaks requiring control have occurred intermittently, notably in the 1990s, 2000–2001, and 2015.[24]

Media coverage

Title Author(s) Year Geographic purview URL
Madagascar locust crisis 2014 View URL
Queensland farmers hit by locust plague – but spiders may be their unexpected salvation 2025
On the frontlines: Battling Namibia’s worst locust crisis United Nations 2021
Explainer: what's behind the locust swarms damaging crops in southern Africa 2020
"Biblical plague" of locusts ruins crops in Tulcea 2022
Locusts now threatening parts of southern Africa, UN says 2020
Villagers In Sumba Chase Away Migratory Locusts With Loud Noises 2022
Besieged by locusts, South Africa's farmers fight back
Locust Plague Devours 40,000 Tonnes of Vegetation 2022


Organizations associated with the migratory locust

Organization name Acronym Website Type Focus Focus keywords Geographic purview
Australian Plague Locust Commission APLC View Government Management, Research, Governance Agricultural development, Control, Coordination, Education, Emergency assistance, Forecasting, Funding, Governance, Information hub, International development, Media, Monitoring, Policy, Regional cooperation, Research, Sustainable development, Technology, Training, Natural sciences Australia
Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development DPI WA View Government Management Monitoring, Control, Forecasting, Training Australia
Department of Primary Industries and Regions PIRSA View Government Management, Development, Information Hub Control, Sustainable development Australia
FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia CCA View Intergovernmental Organization Education, Information Hub, Governance Training, Regional cooperation, Monitoring, Control, Policy, Forecasting Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (country), Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan
Global Locust Initiative GLI View University Research, Education, Information Hub Sustainable development, Ecology, Nutrition, Social science, Natural sciences, Agriculture, Agroecology, Biology, Behavior, Biological control, Climate change, Education, Sustainability science, Geometric framework, Grazing, Governance, Food security, Arts and humanities, Land use management, Landscape ecology, Locusts, Migration, Phase polyphenism, Phenotypic plasticity, Soil science United States, Senegal, Australia, China, Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Mali
International Red Locust Control Organization for Central and Southern Africa IRLCO CSA [www.redlocust.org.zm/ View] Intergovernmental Organization Management, Governance, Funding Monitoring, Control, Regional cooperation, Forecasting, Natural sciences Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi
Ministry of Agriculture Sudan View Government Agricultural development Sudan
Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform MAWLR View Government Management Monitoring Namibia
Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries QLD DPI View Government Management Monitoring, Control, Forecasting, Natural sciences Australia
Queensland Department of Natural Resources DNR View Government Governance, Management, Monitoring, Education Management, Control Australia
The French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development CIRAD View Government Education, Development, Research, Management Forecasting, International development, Training, Agricultural development, Sustainable development, Natural sciences, Modeling, Monitoring, Research, Control, Community development France


Resources

Title Author(s) Year Geographic purview URL
FAO’s technical series on locust management in the Caucasus and Central Asia Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia,Alexandre Latchininsky 2026
Rearing and Breeding Locusts in the Laboratory Anti-Locust Research Centre,Philip Hunter-Jones 1966 View URL
AgroAtlas Pests
Migratory locust info poster FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2024 View URL
Queensland locust sightings form Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 2025
IUCN European Red List of Grasshoppers, Crickets and Bush-crickets 2016 View URL
How to identify locusts 2021 View URL
Managing locusts in Queensland 2022 View URL
FAO Locust Watch Locusts in Caucasus and Central Asia (CCA) meeting, research, workshop, survey report collection FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2022
Michel Lecoq entomology website Michel Lecoq 2014 View URL
Improving national and regional locust management in Caucasus and Central Asia Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2015 View URL
Supplementary environmental assessment (SEA) for USAID funding of locust or grasshopper pesticide usage in Sudan United States Agency for International Development 1990 View URL
Practical guidelines on the three locust pests in Caucasus and Central Asia FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2019
2014 evaluation of field trials data on the efficacy and selectivity of insecticides on locusts and grasshoppers Commission for Controlling the Desert Locust in the Central Region and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2014 View URL
Locusts in Queensland 2003 View URL
FAO locust handbook identification key FAO Desert Locust Information Service and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations View URL
2021 evaluation of field trials data on the efficacy and selectivity of insecticides on locusts and grasshoppers Locust Pesticide Referee Group and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2021 View URL
Practical Guidelines on Pesticide Risk Reduction for Locust Control in CCA FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,Harold Van der Valk 2019
Calendars 2023 on locust control safety measures FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2023
Southern Africa locust outbreak September 2020 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2020 View URL
Australian plague locust online learning module 2022 View URL
Agriculture Victoria Australian plague locust identification, biology and behaviour 2022 View URL
Agriculture Victoria locust and grasshopper online reporting form
Results of the three-year programme in response to the locust plague in Madagascar 1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2016 View URL
Control of the locust plague in Madagascar 2014 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2014 View URL
CABI Green Muscle education videos Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International 2021
FAO Locust Watch bulletin for locusts in Caucasus and Central Asia FAO Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations View URL
Locust identification in Niger Global Locust Initiative, United States Agency for International Development, Directorate of Plant Protection, United Nations AGRHYMET Regional Center, Le Centre National de Lutte Antiacridienne and National Network of Agriculture Chambers of Niger 2022 View URL
India Locust Warning Bulletin Indian Council of Agricultural Research
CIRAD pest locust website The French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development View URL
Locust Literature The French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development View URL
USAID Transboundary Outbreak Pest ETOP bulletins United States Agency for International Development
Australian Plague Locust Commission current locust situation Australian Plague Locust Commission
Australian Plague Locust Commission locust bulletin Australian Plague Locust Commission
APLC locust and grasshopper identification guide Australian Plague Locust Commission
Locusts of Australia Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 2020 View URL


Specimen contributors for this species

Bionomia logo Bionomia links specimen records in GBIF to the people who collected and identified them. Each list shows the top 20 for this species. Read more…

Collected by

People who collected specimens of this species in the field.

Identified by

People who determined the taxonomic identity of specimens of this species.

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 COPR (1982). The Locust and Grasshopper Agricultural Manual. London: Overseas Pest Research. 449.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Ma C, Yang P, Jiang F, Chapuis M-P, Shali Y, Sword GA, Kang L (2012) Mitochondrial genomes reveal the global phylogeography and dispersal routes of the migratory locust: Global phylogeography of the migratory locust. Molecular Ecology 21: 4344–4358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2012.05684.x
  3. ↑ Song H and Wenzel JW (2008) Phylogeny of bird-grasshopper subfamily Cyrtacanthacridinae (Orthoptera: Acrididae) and the evolution of locust phase polyphenism. *Cladistics* 24(4): 515–542. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00190.x
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 FAO (2019) Asian Migratory Locust (LMI). Asian Migratory Locust (LMI) | Locust Watch in Caucasus and Central Asia. Available from: http://www.fao.org/locusts-cca/bioecology/asian-migratory-locust-lmi/en/ (November 18, 2019).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Lecoq M and Zhang L (2019) Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758) (Acrididae). In: Lecoq M, Zhang L (Eds) Encyclopedia of Pest Orthoptera of the World. China Agricultural University Press, Beijing, China, 119-128.
  6. ↑ Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2025) 3. Migratory locust: Locusta migratoria. Biosecurity and Trade, Australia. [1](https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/locusts/about/id-guide/description_of_adults/3_migratory_locust_locusta_migratoria)
  7. ↑ Farrow RA (1975) The African migratory locust in its main outbreak area of the Middle Niger: Quantitative studies of solitary populations in relation to environmental factors. Locusta 11: 198.
  8. ↑ Verdier M (1970) The different life cycles in Locusta in relation to climatic and genetic diversity. In: Hemming CF, Taylor THC (Eds) Proceedings of the International Study Conference Current and Future Problems of Acridology, London, UK, 6–16 July 1970, pp. 335–338.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Price RE (2023) Invasions and local outbreaks of four species of plague locusts in South Africa: A historical review of outbreak dynamics and patterns. Insects 14(11): 846. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14110846
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2025) Migratory locust: distribution. Biosecurity and Trade, Australia. [2]https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/locusts/about/migratory#distribution
  11. ↑ Uvarov B (1966) Grasshoppers and Locusts: A Handbook of General Acridology. 1. Anatomy, Physiology, Development, Phase Polymorphism, Introduction to Taxonomy. Cambridge: University Press.
  12. ↑ Uvarov B (1977) Grasshoppers and Locusts. A Handbook of General Acridology Vol. 2. Behaviour, Ecology, Biogeography, Population Dynamics. Cambridge: Centre for Overseas Pest Research.
  13. ↑ Pener M P and Simpson SJ (2009) “Locust phase polyphenism: an update,” in Advances in Insect Physiology, eds S. J. Simpson and M. P. Pener (London:Academic Press), 1–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2806(08)36001-9
  14. ↑ Guo W, Wang X, Ma Z, Xue L, Han J, Yu D (2011) CSP and takeout genes modulate the switch between attraction and repulsion during behavioral phase change in the migratory locust. PLoS Genet. 7:e1001291. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1001291
  15. ↑ Ma Z, Guo W, Guo X, Wang X, Kang L (2011) Modulation of behavioral phase changes of the migratory locust by the catecholamine metabolic pathway. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 108: 3882–3887. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015098108
  16. ↑ Ma Z, Guo X, Lei H, Li T, Hao S, Kang L (2015) Octopamine and tyramine respectively regulate attractive and repulsive behavior in locust phase changes. Sci. Rep. 5:8036. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08036
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Uvarov BP (1936) The oriental migratory locust (Locusta migratoria manilensis, Meyen 1835). Bulletin of Entomological Research 27: 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300058144.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Latchininsky AV (2013) Locusts and remote sensing: a review. Journal of Applied Remote Sensing 7: 075099. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.JRS.7.075099
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Le Gall M, Overson R, Cease A (2019) A global review on locusts (Orthoptera: Acrididae) and their interactions with livestock grazing practices. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7: 263. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00263
  20. ↑ Wang S, Li G, Feng C, Xu W, Wang X, Nie Q, Gao X, Liu Q (2023) River system changes and locust breeding area evolution in the Qin-Jin region of the Yellow River Basin during the Ming and Qing dynasties and their disaster effects. Science of The Total Environment 880: 163220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163220.
  21. ↑ Balança G, Gay P-E, Rachadi T, Lecoq M, Balanca G (1999a) Interpretation of Recent Outbreaks of the Migratory Locust Locusta migratoria migratorioides (Reiche and Fairmaire, 1850) [Orthoptera, Acrididae] in Lake Chad Basin According to Rainfall Data. Journal of Orthoptera Research: 83. https://doi.org/10.2307/3503430
  22. ↑ Benfekih L, Chara B, Doumandji-Mitiche B (2002) Influence of anthropogenic impact on the habitats and swarming risks of Dociostourus morocconus and Locusto migratoria (Orthoptera, Acrididae) in the Algerian Sahara and the semiarid zone. Journal of Orthoptera Research 11: 243–250. https://doi.org/10.1665/1082-6467(2002)011[0243:IOAIOT]2.0.CO;2
  23. ↑ Benfekih L, Petit D (2010) The annual cycle of Saharan populations of Locusta migratoria cinerascens (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Oedipodinae) in Algeria. Annales de la Société entomologique de France (N.S.) 46: 351–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/00379271.2010.10697674
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2025) History of locust and grasshopper outbreaks in Australia. Biosecurity and Trade, Australia. [3]https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/locusts/about/history#migratory-locust
  25. ↑ Farrow R A (1979) Causes of Recent Changes in the Distribution and Abundance of the Migratory Locust (Locusta migratoria L.) in Australia in Relation to Plagues.
  26. ↑ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (no year) Locust issues in Caucasus and Central Asia (CCA): bioecology. FAO, Rome. [4]https://www.fao.org/locusts-cca/bioecology/en/
  27. ↑ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2022) FAO is strengthening regional cooperation for more effective locust management. United Nations Tajikistan. [5]https://tajikistan.un.org/en/208681-fao-strengthening-regional-cooperation-more-effective-locust-management
  28. ↑ International Red Locust Control Organisation for Central & Southern Africa (no year) Red Locust Control in Zambia. [6]https://redlocust.org.zm/
  29. ↑ Ries MW, Adriaansen C, Aldobai S, Berry K, Bal AB, Catenaccio MC, Cigliano MM, Cullen DA, Deveson T, Diongue A, Foquet B, Hadrich J, Hunter D, Johnson DL, Pablo Karnatz J, Lange CE, Lawton D, Lazar M, Latchininsky AV, Lecoq M, Le Gall M, Lockwood J, Manneh B, Overson R, Peterson BF, Piou C, Poot-Pech MA, Robinson BE, Rogers SM, Song H, Springate S, Therville C, Trumper E, Waters C, Woller DA, Youngblood JP, Zhang L, Cease A (2024) Global perspectives and transdisciplinary opportunities for locust and grasshopper pest management and research. Journal of Orthoptera Research 33(2): 169–216. https://doi.org/10.3897/jor.33.112803.
  30. ↑ Rasib KZ (2022) Deciphering outbreaks of the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria L.) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) with their management strategies. Annals of Experimental and Molecular Biology 4(1): 000112. https://doi.org/10.23880/aemb-16000112.
  31. ↑ Stige LC, Chan K-S, Zhang Z, Frank D, Stenseth NC (2007) Thousand-year-long Chinese time series reveals climatic forcing of decadal locust dynamics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 104, 16188–16193. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0706813104
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Cullen DA, Sword GA, Rosenthal GG, Simpson SJ, Dekempeneer E, Hertog MLATM, Nicolaï BM, Caes R (2017) Mechanisms and consequences of locust phase polyphenism. Advances in Insect Physiology 53: 1–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aiip.2017.06.002.
  33. ↑ Chen Y-L (1999) The locust and grasshopper pests of China. China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing.
  34. ↑ Zhang Z, Li D (1999) A possible relationship between outbreaks of the oriental migratory locust (Locusta migratoria manilensis Meyen) in China and the El Niño episodes. Ecological Research 14: 267–270. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1703.1999.t01-1-143305.x.
  35. ↑ Lea A (1973) Locust Control and Research in Southern Africa, Entomology Memoir. Department of Agricultural Technical Services of South Africa, Government Printer, Pretoria, South Africa.
  36. ↑ Botha DH (1969) Locusts and their control in South Africa (Part III). The African migratory locust. Farming in South Africa 45: 39–40.
  37. ↑ Brown HD (1986) New locust problem. Antenna 10(1): 11–13.
  38. ↑ The Herald Online (2025) Region needs $4m to fight locusts. The Herald Online, Zimbabwe. [7]https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/region-needs-4m-to-fight-locusts/
  39. ↑ FAO Regional Office for Africa. (September 4, 2020) Locust outbreaks threaten food security in southern Africa. http://www.fao.org/africa/news/detail-news/en/c/1306167/
  40. ↑ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2013) Response to the locust plague: three-year programme 2013–2016. FAO, Rome. [8]https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/emergencies/docs/Locust-crisis-madagascar-FAO_en.pdf
  41. ↑ OCHA Madagascar: Grand Sud Humanitarian Snapshot (August 2021) https://www.unocha.org/publications/report/madagascar/madagascar-humanitarian-snapshot-may-september-2025
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